Poswa verbs

Poswa verbs have 8 conjugation classes corresponding to the final letter of the stem of the verb. The commonest final vowel is /a/, so -a is considered the first conjugation class. Each verb also conjugates for three persons (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and three tenses: past, present, and imperative. The "plain" future tense is derived from the imperative. Verbal moods are handled by inflecting the conjugated verb (which always ends in a vowel) with consonants that resemble noun inflections. It could thus be said that verbs in Poswa are merely a subset of nouns. Lastly, each verb can be inflected for transitivity, so from each verb stem can be formed 54 forms.

The verb stem

The bare stem of a verb is rarely used in Poswa. Many verbs are highly irregular, but if one thinks of an alternate, "oblique" stem that replaces the primary stem, they become largely or entirely regular. Nevertheless, unlike in Pabappa, Poswa speakers cannot simply ignore the existence of the primary stem because it still does appear in certain constructions, such as indefinite serial verbs. Thus the verb stem can be thought of as an "indefinite" stem.

Another place where the bare stem comes into play is when infixes are placed into verb stems. Here, the verb stems that end in consonants are often changed into ones that end in vowels, or into ones that end in different consonants.

Forming verbs from nouns

Nominative

As above, the stem of a verb is considered a noun, although some verb stems are not used as nouns. When a noun is turned into a verb, the nominative case of that noun becomes the verb stem, and a list of rules governing vowel and consonant mutations is applied to derive the new verb forms, since for many noun shapes there is no regular form at all. (A few verbs are formed from other cases; these are described below.)

The most straightforward derivations are for nouns ending in -m or (in most cases) the vowels -e or -i, as the stems remain intact and the verbal suffixes are simply added onto the end. The meaning of the verb is often similar to the meaning of the instrumental case of the noun, despite being formed from the nominative:

Plinob₁ twembi.₂

I boated₂ home.₁

Where twem means "boat" and -bi is the 1st person past tense marker. (Verbs are not marked for number, so there is no separate 1st person plural marker.)

With most verb stems, however, the suffixation process is not so simple, and Poswa speakers need to learn a separate "oblique" stem that makes the process seem more intuitive. For example, poppup means "knife", but

Tašepi₁ poppifebi.₂

I cut₂ the apple.₁

shows a vowel change from -u- to -i- and a consonant change from -p to -f-.

Accusative

The bare accusative form is rarely used to form new verbs in Poswa. When it is, it is generally an intransitive ad-hoc formation rather than an intention to form a semantically independent root. For example, a hunter being asked what he was hunting might say

Pruptafo.

I'm doing deer.

However, this is not common usage because there already exists a similar construction with one less morpheme, involving attaching the verb marker directly to the accusative form of the noun without the use of the "mutating" infix. Thus one would more commonly hear

Pruptapo.

I'm doing deer.

Causative

See Poswa_nouns#Causative.

The causative is not considered a true noun case in Poswa, but rather a subset of the accusative formed by taking the instrumental form of a noun and then inflecting that stem with the accusative. It is often identical with the ordinary accusative form of the noun and has bled some of its meaning towards the accusative. Nevertheless, it still retains many independent uses, such as producing verbs. These verbs are usually intransitive structurally, even if they have syntactic transitive meaning, such as

Fompwafo.

I'm making a mess!

Which is derived by declining fompa "mess" into its causative form, fompwap, and then adding the 1st person present verbal suffix -(ab)o.

Instrumental

Food and drink

Names of whole foods and drinks are verbalized by adding suffixes to the instrumental case rather than the nominative. This is considered a type of subject incorporation even though the food is semantically the patient of the verb rather than the agent, and even though the verbs produced are not actually compounds because the instrumental case is a stem-changing infix rather than a separate morpheme. These verbs are indefinite, and are intransitive if the object is not specifically named. For example:

Pawiebo.

I'm eating a banana.

Levibo.

I'm eating strawberries.

Piebo.

I'm drinking wine.

Note that up above, the choice of how to translate the verbs into English was dependent on the meaning of the verb. Whereas most humans will eat only one banana at a time, strawberries are generally eaten in bunches. This is because these verbs are indefinite, seen as "general use" verbs, and therefore not marked for number. Thus, one would not use the plural suffix -bum in the middle of a verb and produce a word such as

*Levobiebo.

I'm eating (a bunch of) strawberries.

Here the plural infix is correctly changed from -bum to -bie- because of the inflection, but the word is still considered grammatically incorrect because this type of verb is generally indifferent to number.

All of the verbs above were intransitive because there was no explicit object named. If the object is explicitly named, the verb will be transitive:

Levobiepo levibo.

I'm eating the strawberries.

However, since the above sentence translates literally as something like "I strawberry-ate the strawberries", Poswob speakers would more often simply use one of its many verbs for eating that does not involve incorporation, such as

Levobiepi bavebi.

Levobiepi amnebebi.

I ate the strawberries.

Levobiepi biumbebi.

I ate the strawberries by actively pressing them against my teeth with my tongue.

Levobiepi pyparebi.

I ate the strawberries whole, using only my tongue and my lips.

Levobiepi vwambebi.

I ate the strawberries rapidly.

Levobiepi vabžebi.

Levobiepi možambebi.

I gobbled the strawberries with my mouth, without using my hands.

Levobiepi pirpafebi.

I ate the strawberries by nibbling them in small pieces.

(Here the verbs have been changed to past tense in order to give the speaker more time to digest the eight bowls of strawberries.)

Other foods

As above, whole foods and drinks are able to form indefinite verbs using the instrumental case of the noun stem. For foods, this use is restricted to fruits and vegetables. The Poswa word for chicken is tuppi, but one cannot say

*Tuppwabo.

I'm eating chicken.

The reason for this mismatch is because animals are not seen primarily as food products. In a room containing a human being and a banana, only one interaction between the two presents itself, but an interaction between a human and a farm animal can resolve in many possible ways. The choice of whether the verbal construction is permitted or not is determined by whether Poswa considers the noun to be both edible and an animate noun, rather than by strict biological criteria. Thus, small sessile sea animals are not considered animate and thus can be eaten in a single word.

Likewise, food products that have other purposes cannot be verbalized this way, such as

*Potibo.

I'm eating pine sap.

Beverages and other liquids

In the case of liquids, the same alternation produces an indefinite verb indicating drinking:

Blwibo.

I'm drinking milk.

Piabo.

I'm drinking wine.

Pippibo.

I'm drinking juice.

But not every liquid is considered potable:

*Porsybo.

I'm drinking blood.

*Potibo.

I'm drinking pine sap.

Oddly,

*Twibo.

I'm drinking water.

does not occur either. Twibo, formed from the instrumental form (twub) of the commonest word for water (twu), is avoided because it conflicts with the unrelated verb twub "to pee", formed from the nominative form of the word for urine. Thus, the sentence above actually means "I'm peeing!" Since the instrumental form of twub "urine" is also twub,

*Twibo.

I'm drinking urine.

Is also forbidden. If someone speaking Poswa wants to indicate that he is drinking water (or urine), he must use a traditional transitive construction with a separate noun and verb, such as:

Bwurabo twop.

I'm drinking water.

Note that this sentence is still ambiguous between whether it is water or urine that the speaker is drinking, but it is no longer ambiguous whether the speaker is sipping that liquid or pissing it. (See Poswa_irregular_nouns#twu.)

Essive

The essive case is rarely used to form verbs. When it is, it retains its basic meaning of indicating that one thing is made from another, such as:

Nobellam blwiba.

Icecream is made of milk.

However, since such verbs are almost always long-term general truths, Poswa prefers not to use verbs at all for such statements. The sentence above might subtly imply that icecream may not be made of milk next week. One would more often hear:

Nobellam blwi.

Ice cream is made of milk.

This sentence has no verb, so it is not distinguished from "ice cream (that is) made of milk", but this is how Poswa and most of its neighboring languages (but not Pabappa) express general truths.

Person markers

Poswa marks the person of both the agent and the patient on the verb, but does not mark number, gender, or animacy. The number is often left entirely unspecified:

Bwabbu pofšap biumbebel.

The sheep ate the grass.

But sometimes may be inferred from context:

When direct specification is desired, suffixes are placed on the nouns to specifically indicate their number:

Pwopwa pisiam taesfaba. Bad?

The child is sitting on the rock.

Pwopwabum pisiam taesfaba.

The children are sitting on the rock.

Pwopwabum pisambiem taesfaba.

The children are sitting on the rocks.

The gender of both the subject and the object is likewise inferred from context, and animacy is a property of each individual noun that speakers memorize as they learn the language (and it faithfully follows real-world semantics).

Verbs of possession

See also Poswa nouns#Possession.

Single-word sentences can indicate possession, because Poswa's formula for expressing possession is to put possession markers on its nouns, and those markers are etymologically related to the verbal markers. Thus, a noun marked for possession serves as both a noun and a verb, and there is no distinction between a word for "my cucumber" and a single-word sentence meaning "I have a cucumber".

Thus, Poswa does not have a verb corresponding to English "I have" or other equivalents such as Spanish tener. Whether physical possession or mere association is meant, the same simple construction is used: the noun being possessed is simply given a possessive marker whose person corresponds to the person of the owner.

Mio.

I have a bottle.

Pemmabo.

I have a seal (animal).

Pupsatabo.

I have a problem.

Bempuppo.

I have an arm.

Mama.

I have a mother.

Use of numbers after possessive verbs

Numbers are placed after the noun, rather than being part of it, although the agglutinative fusional markers are placed before the person marker:

Bomptšata nubesoffa bibi.

The mayor has four taxes.

Interaction with animacy

All Poswa nouns are either animate or inanimate. Poswa verbs can be conjugated as either transitive or intransitive. Inanimate nouns can only take the intransitive verbs; if an inanimate subject gets a transitive verb, it implies an understood subject, corresponding to the person marking on the verb.

For example, the sentence

Blaba žuftatiep rufaba

means not "Paper covers the floor" but "His paper covers the floor", which to many Poswobs would actually imply something like "He covers the floor with his paper". Pronouns are rarely used in Poswa except for explicit emphasis, as the person markings on the verb, and to a lesser extent the nouns, take care of the functions that in Pabappa and other languages are given to pronouns.

Adjectives and the habitual tense

Habitual tense in early Poswa

Early Poswa (Babakiam) had a fourth verb tense known as the habitual, which combined aspects of aspect and tense. The habitual did not have separate forms for past, present, and future, because it was considered a tense of its own rather than an aspect which could be conjugated for each of the three tenses. This is because of where on the verb it is marked. Thus, aspect markers could be used in the habitual tense.

The habitual was used for actions that were independent of time, often being eternal truths or statements of identity or equivalence. Many verbs in the habitual tense would be translated into languages such as English by adjectives rather than by verbs.

Habitual tense in modern Poswa

The habitual tense is no longer widely used for verbs in modern Poswa, as its forms have largely merged with the present tense. However, since no new habitual construction has been set up, this means that the present tense does double duty as both its original meaning and as a new habitual. Thus a sentence such as

Mapobum nobelliap subžviraba.

The girls are selling ice cream.

Can also mean

The girls sell ice cream (as a career).

This does not present a great problem for Poswobs because the predicate in the second sentence can be replaced with a noun, yielding a sentence such as

Mapobum nobellam pwamptae.

The girls are icecream sellers.

Habituals as adjectives

As above, the habitual tense is not included in the conjugation tables below. It can be formed by taking the present tense and replacing the vowels -o -ae -a by -y -e -a.

In very early Bābākiam, infixes came to be placed within the habitual tense forms of the verb to derive the other tenses. These were redundant, since tense was already marked by a suffix, but the redundancy became frozen into the grammar and later sound changes made it less redundant.

Adjectives

Poswa does not have a distinct part of speech corresponding to adjectives. Concepts expressed with adjectives in many other languages are expressed in Poswa partly by verbs and partly by nouns. Poswa has no copula verb, so a sentence can consist of just a noun and a verb playing the role of an adjective. These verbs are often in the habitual tense, which appears identical to the present tense. They always end with -a because the third person present tense of all verbs, even irregular ones, always ends in -a. The adjectival verb is almost always placed after the noun it modifies, since Poswa verbs almost always come after their subjects. For example:

Ipi pabbubufa.

The pine tree is tall.

Poppup labbaša.

The knife is sharp.

Pompa mimptoba.

The thunder is loud.

Verbal adjectives do not change for number, because verbs in general do not have separate forms for singular and plural subjects. Thus one would say:

Ipibum pabbubufa.

The pine trees are tall.

Poppubum labbaša.

The knives are sharp.

And so on.

Sentences like the above can stand by themselves. (Note that inanimate objects can only take intransitive verbs.) However, verbal adjectives like the above can also stand before another verb:

Potwum wuvwaša raefobiep sobiubwa.

The blonde soldiers are fighting the toads.

Comparative adjectives

Comparatives can be formed by verbal adjectives or by suffixes on the object being compared.

The dominant order is an unusual formation influenced by Moonshine, aopplying MS word order to Poswa structures: X Y-comp ad,.j

Men women-plus tall. That is, there is no wordf meaning "Taller" etc, just a word meaning "more than woman are".

Sabas paefampys pabbubufa.

The man is taller than the woman.

First person habitual verbs

Oddly, one remnant of the previous use of the habitual as a full tense is that when it is used in the first person, it still takes the old -y ending instead of the modern -o:

Pabo¹ pabbubuffy.²

means "I¹ am tall²". Pabbubup is the stem of the word meaning "tall", and if used with no affix, is a noun denoting any tall object. (It means literally "causing shadows".) With the 1st person habitual suffix on, it is a verb meaning "I am tall (as a stable property)". The use of the pronoun pabo is for emphasis only, as even a habitual verb can be used as a sentence by itself.

One relic of the historical emergence of a new class of nouns from modifying verbs is that most verbs that are used with a lexically adjectival meaning can also function as nouns, be they transitive or intransitive. For example,

Bampfaba puvlwas pumwapwaba.

The one who hunts is running from a cougar.

This contrasts with a traditional noun setup, such as

Bampata puvlwas pumwapwaba.

The hunter is running from a cougar.

Conjugation tables

-a

The verb luba "to change color, repaint" is used here as an example of an -a verb.

luba		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	lubi	lubo	lubub
	2nd person	lube	lubae	lubi
	3rd person	lubel	luba	lubob
Transitive	1st person	lubebi	lubabo	lubbub
	2nd person	lubebe	lubabae	lubbi
	3rd person	lubebel	lubaba	lubbob

Thus one can say

Blebblobopi lippipa lubebi.

I painted the wall green.

But

Lusafampi lubi žužum.

I turned pink from embarrassment.

After discovering you've painted over the windows as well.

Consonant mutation

The -a- conjugation class undergoes consonant mutation for the consonant before the final vowel. The verb above had a -b- before the final vowel, and the mutated form of -b- is still -b-, thus masking the effect. But for other consonants, the table of consonant mutations is followed.

-pa

-p-

Below is the conjugation for pirlipa "to cartwheel, roll around on one's hands and feet":

pirlipa		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	pirlifi	pirlifo	pirlifub
	2nd person	pirlife	pirlifae	pirlifi
	3rd person	pirlifel	pirlifa	pirlifob
Transitive	1st person	pirlifebi	pirlifabo	pirlifpub
	2nd person	pirlifebe	pirlifabae	pirlifpi
	3rd person	pirlifebel	pirlifaba	pirlifpob

Note the change of the expected -b- to -p- in the transitive imperative.

This verb is often used transitively in a metaphorical sense, so one can say

Pobbliup,₁ pirlifebi.₂

Sorry,₁ I bumped into you.₂

With the implication of "Sorry, i just disrupted your plans or messed up something you built."

-ma

-m-

Below is the conjugation for brama "to bite (off), as with a beak; to cut with a uniformly sharp instrument":

brama		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	bravi	bravo	bravub
	2nd person	brave	bravae	bravi
	3rd person	bravel	brava	bravob
Transitive	1st person	bravebi	bravabo	bravbub
	2nd person	bravebe	bravabae	bravbi
	3rd person	bravebel	bravaba	bravbob

Thus one can say

Bravbi!

Bite me!

Twup!₁ Loppasufo₂ bravaba;₃ sas₄ pop₅ pubbvub₆ pelpies?₇

Ouch!₁ My pet falcon₂ is biting me,₃ can₄ we₅ talk₆ later?₇

Bovepiopi₁ bulžirebi,₂ wa₃ po₄ bravebi.₅

I grabbed₂ my teething ring,₁ and₃ bit it₅ hard.₄

The similarity between a baby's mouth and a bird's is that neither of them have (many) teeth, and therefore they both bite with a smooth flat surface rather than a many-pointed one. Other verbs are used for biting animals that have teeth. It can also be used for inanimate objects:

Leppiapiub,₁ rulpos₂ lompapi₃ bravebi.₄

With my scissors,₁ I cut off₄ the corner₃ of the napkin.₂

-sa

-s-

Below is the conjugation for masa "to jump, leap, try to escape":

masa		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	maši	mašo	mašub
	2nd person	maše	mašae	maši
	3rd person	mašel	maša	mašob
Transitive	1st person	mašebi	mašabo	mašpub
	2nd person	mašebe	mašabae	mašpi
	3rd person	mašebel	mašaba	mašpob

Sasebo mašo!

I want to get out!

-na

-n-

Below is the conjugation for pana "to be thirsty":

pana		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	pavi	pavo	pavub
	2nd person	pave	pavae	pavi
	3rd person	pavel	pava	pavob
Transitive	1st person	pavebi	pavabo	pavbub
	2nd person	pavebe	pavabae	pavbi
	3rd person	pavebel	pavaba	pavbob

This verb is mostly used intransitively:

Pavo!

I'm thirsty!

-la

-l-

Below is the conjugation for pustila "to shake, to cause something to vibrate":

pana		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	pustiži	pustižo	pustižub
	2nd person	pustiže	pustižae	pustiži
	3rd person	pustižel	pustiža	pustižob
Transitive	1st person	pustižebi	pustižabo	pustižbub
	2nd person	pustižebe	pustižabae	pustižbi
	3rd person	pustižebel	pustižaba	pustižbob

-ra

-r-

Below is the conjugation for taera "to run":

taera		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	taebi	taebo	taebub
	2nd person	taebe	taebae	taebi
	3rd person	taebel	taeba	taebob
Transitive	1st person	taebebi	taebabo	taebbub
	2nd person	taebebe	taebabae	taebbi
	3rd person	taebebel	taebaba	taebbob

Taebo požva fufažiub.

I'm running towards my martial arts class.

-wa¹

-w-

Below is the conjugation for wupwawa "to write":

wupwawa		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	wupwawie	wupwawio	wupwawiub
	2nd person	wupwawie	wupwawiae	wupwawie
	3rd person	wupwawiel	wupwawia	wupwawiob
Transitive	1st person	wupwawiebi	wupwawiabo	wupwawiabub
	2nd person	wupwawiebe	wupwawiabae	wupwawiabi
	3rd person	wupwawiebel	wupwawiaba	wupwawiabob

Pwopwabum, pwawam raffep blabem wupwawiabi.

Children, please write your names on your papers.

-e/-i

As Poswa inherited the "a e i o u" vowel order from Pabappa, and places its vowels before its consonants, the second conjugation is the one representing verb stems ending in -e or -i. The verb wape "to help, provide for" is used here as an example of an -e verb. The endings would be the same if the verb ended in -i instead. Unlike the -a conjugation, the -e/-i conjugation always adds a syllable to the intransitive form and two syllables to the transitive form. This is because the final vowel of the verb stem does not collapse the way it does in the -a words. This, in turn, is due to analogy with a small number of verbs that had previously ended in a consonant but lost that consonant.

wape		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	wapebi	wapebo	wapebub
	2nd person	wapebe	wapebae	wapebi
	3rd person	wapebel	wapeba	wapebob
Transitive	1st person	wapebebi	wapebabo	wapebbub
	2nd person	wapebebe	wapebabae	wapebbi
	3rd person	wapebebel	wapebaba	wapebbob

Pimpubbum mapobiep wapebaba faspavas.

The boys are helping the girls with their chores.

Past tense intransitive verbs whose stems end in -e often resemble transitive verbs whose stems end in -a or a consonant, since -e- is the vowel that marks the past tense. For example, the sentence

Pavebi.

can mean either

I tied you (up).

In which case it is a derivative of the verb pama "to tie, make a knot", or

I used crutches.

In which case it is a derivative of the word pave "crutch". This rarely causes confusion for Poswa speakers because few sentences use verbs in which it is ambiguous whether that verb is transitive or intransitive. Moreover, these coalescences can only happen with intransitive -e verbs that have one of the consonants that mutates to itself before the -e.

-o/-u/-y

A more complicated setup is the third conjugation, that which reflects words ending in the rounded vowels /o/, /u/, and /y/ (a rounded schwa-like sound).

The verb subu "to conquer, take over" is used here as an example of an -u verb. The endings would be the same if the verb ended in -o or -y instead, but note that most verb stems ending in -o do not belong to this conjugation.

subu		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	subwi	subwo	subwub
	2nd person	subwe	subwae	subwi
	3rd person	subwel	subwa	subwob
Transitive	1st person	subwebi	subwabo	subwubub
	2nd person	subwebe	subwabae	subwubi
	3rd person	subwebel	subwaba	subwubob

The first person imperative is used in the sense of "let me X!", so the one-word sentence Subwubub! would mean "Let me take you over!" (If no object is given, it is understood to be a 2nd person object.) Whereas the third person imperative is also used with a similar sense: Pupipup subwubob! translates as "Let him take over the world!"

Most verbs in this conjugation class end in -u or -y. One of the few that ends in -o is pappo "to bite".

-p

The first consonant-stem conjugation is the -p conjugation, because /p/ is the first consonant in the Poswa alphabet. Since all reflexive verbs end in /p/, this conjugation is more common than the other consonant conujgations. However, many verb stems that end in /p/ are normal verbs, not reflexives. The verb blop "to see, focus" is used below as an example of a non-reflexive /p/ verb. Note that, unlike the vowel conjugations above, the transitive form is not merely derived by inserting the infix "-ab-" into the intransitive form.

blop		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	blofi	blofo	blofub
	2nd person	blofe	blofae	blofi
	3rd person	blofel	blofa	blofob
Transitive	1st person	blopebi	blopabo	bloppub
	2nd person	blopebe	blopabae	bloppi
	3rd person	blopebel	blopaba	bloppob

Thus one can say

Muššiepi bi bloppi!

Look at that horse!

-m

The -m conjugation is very simple. It does not matter what the vowel preceding the final -m is, because there are neither vowel changes nor consonant changes in the stem.

The verb pessam "to cuddle, hug, squeeze someone" is used here as an example of an -m verb.

pessam		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	pessambi	pessambo	pessambub
	2nd person	pessambe	pessambae	pessambi
	3rd person	pessambel	pessamba	pessambob
Transitive	1st person	pessambebi	pessambabo	pessambybub
	2nd person	pessambebe	pessambabae	pessambybi
	3rd person	pessambebel	pessambaba	pessambybob

Thus, all -m verbs conjugate the same way that they would if they instead ended in -mba. Indeed, another verb for hugging is mamba, and it conjugates the same as it would if it were mam. Thus one can say:

Pessambabo! Mambabo!

I'm cuddling you! I'm hugging you!

-s

The -s conjugation has a few slipups. The verb pipsis "to sleep in a tree, camp out" is used here as an example of an -s verb.

pipsis		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	pipsiši	pipsišo	pipsišub
	2nd person	pipsiše	pipsišae	pipsiši
	3rd person	pipsišel	pipsiša	pipsišob
Transitive	1st person	pipsisebi	pipsisabo	pipsispub
	2nd person	pipsisebe	pipsisabae	pipsispi
	3rd person	pipsisebel	pipsisaba	pipsispob

Note that the transitive sense of verbs like pipsis is not "to sleep in a tree" (with the tree as the object of the verb) but "to sleep (someone) in a tree; to put someone to sleep in a tree" and thus one would not normally find a word for tree in the accusative in this sentence. If the tree is mentioned, it would be in the locative case. Thus, with both pronouns understood, Pipsispi fadžam can mean "I put you to sleep in a palm tree". (It can also mean "(You) put me to sleep in a palm tree!" (imperative), but this would be distinguished by tone of voice and context.

Some verbs ending in -s have a reflexive meaning, even though the reflexive ending in Poswa is -p. This refers to an old sense related to the genitive, in which verbs for things like "to comb one's hair" (pampapes) were used with the genitive instead of the accusative. These verbs are generally used only intransitively, because the transitive meaning of, for example, pampapes is not "to comb someone else's hair" but "to make someone comb their hair".

Distance verbs

/-s/ can also indicate "distance verbs". e.g. tura = "bomb"; turas = "there are bombs here". wap = "to be happy"; wakas = "for you to be happy". Hence Wakašo "I make you happy" etc

-l

Most verb stems that end in -l belong to the -el or -ul subcategories. Less common are -il and -ol; there are a few verbs whose stems end in -yl which behave the same as the -ol verbs. No verb stems end in -al; roots Romanized with a final -al actually end in a phonemic /alʷ/.

-el

The verb pelpel "to pounce" is used here as an example of an -l verb.

pelpel		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	pelpeži	pelpežo	pelpežub
	2nd person	pelpeže	pelpežae	pelpeži
	3rd person	pelpežel	pelpeža	pelpežob
Transitive	1st person	pelpelebi	pelpelabo	pelpelbub
	2nd person	pelpelebe	pelpelabae	pelpelbi
	3rd person	pelpelebel	pelpelaba	pelpelbob

Thus one can say:

Sanža puvlwap pelpelebel.

The boy pounced on the cougar.

-o

The -o conjugation is considered a consonantal one, because it reflects a lost final /r/ that changed to /b/ in some words but coalesced with the preceding vowel in others. This is why most verb stems with final -o are not in the -o/-u/-y conjugation above, but rather in this one. This conjugation can be called B5 because it is traditionally the fifth of the consonantal conjugation classes. The verb poto "to chase down, run and catch, as in war" is used here as an example of an -o verb.

poto		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	potabi	potabo	potabub
	2nd person	potabe	potabae	potabi
	3rd person	potabel	potaba	potabob
Transitive	1st person	potarebi	potarabo	potarybub
	2nd person	potarebe	potarabae	potarybi
	3rd person	potarebel	potaraba	potarybob

Potarabo saffapop.

I'm catching butterflies.

-ob

A subtype of the B5 conjugation exists for verbs whose stems end in -ob or -u and historically ended in an -r. Below is the conjugation of the verb povbob "to become pregnant":

povbob		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	povbwi	povbwo	povbwub
	2nd person	povbwe	povbwae	povbwi
	3rd person	povbwel	povbwa	povbwob
Transitive	1st person	povbwebi	povbwabo	povbwubub
	2nd person	povbwebe	povbwabae	povbwubi
	3rd person	povbwebel	povbwaba	povbwubob

The implied object of this verb is not the child being conceived but the father of the child. Thus

Povbwebi blebbelmeptap.

means "I got pregnant through the bricklayer", not "I got pregnant with the bricklayer".

This is essentially identical to the -u conjugation above, despite arising from a stem-final consonant rather than a stem-final vowel.

-ub

A subtype of the B5 conjugation exists for verbs whose stems end in -ub or -u and historically ended in an -r. Below is the conjugation of the verb bivub "to advise, sponsor":

bivub		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	bivibi	bivibo	bivibub
	2nd person	bivibe	bivibae	bivibi
	3rd person	bivibel	biviba	bivibob
Transitive	1st person	bivirebi	bivirabo	bivirybub
	2nd person	bivirebe	bivirabae	bivirybi
	3rd person	bivirebel	biviraba	bivirybob

Note that the final vowel in the stem changes to i even though the bare form of the word has an u. Neither vowel is the original; the original vowel in most words in this class was y, which changed to u in most closed syllables and i in most open ones.

Hyper-regular verbs

Most Poswa verbs that end in -a or a consonant involve some form of consonant mutation. However, in a few verbs, the mutated consonant has merged with the original consonant due to succeeding sound changes. Thus, the verb can be said to be hyper-regular since it avoids even the normal changes that other Poswa verbs undergo. Most of these verbs end in -ba, since the mutated form of b is simply b. However, since this pattern is regular and entirely exceptionless (that is, there are no verbs ending in -ba that mutate it to something else), these -ba verbs are not considered to be hyper-regular. The same analysis applies to verbs whose stems end in -a preceded by one of the consonants f v š ž tš dž, as these consonants are the same as their respective mutated forms. Thus, all verbs ending in any of -ba -fa -va -ša -ža -tša -dža will not mutate during their conjugations.

However, some non-mutating verbs end in -pa or in a sequence that becomes -pa after mutation. Since the normal behavior for -pa is to change to -f-, these verbs are singled out as hyper-regular verbs. Below is the conjugation of pypumpa "to pull":

pypumpa

The verb pypumpa "to pull" is a hyper-regular verb:

	Agent	Patient	Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	—	pypumpi	pypumpo	pypumpub
	2nd person	—	pypumpe	pypumpae	pypumpi
	3rd person	—	pypumpel	pypumpa	pypumpob
Transitive	1st person	2nd person	pypumpebi	pypumpabo	pypumpybub
		3rd person
	2nd person	1st person	pypumpebe	pypumpabae	pypumpybi
		3rd person
	3rd person	1st person	pypumpebel	pypumpaba	pypumpybob
		2nd person

Thus one can say:

Pimpup puvapwop wubbuwavbem pypumpebel.

The boy pulled on the door of the jail.

Pypumpa belongs to a small class of verbs where the mutated form of the consonant is the same as the original. In an older stage of the language, the word was pypumpsa. The mutated form of this verb was pypumpša, but a sound change of -mp[flrsšt]- > -mp- merged the two. This particular sound change only triggered when an -m- was present before the -p-.

Aspect

Verbal aspect is expressed in Poswa in a variety of manners. Some use serial verb constructions, some use suffixes on the stem of the verb, and some use infixes that change the stem of the verb itself.

Iterative aspect

The iterative aspect is expressed through infixes on the root of the verb. Thus, verbs that end in a vowel will remain in the same conjugation with the use of this aspect marker. However, verbs that end in a consonant will switch to an oblique stem that ends in a vowel, usually the same as the vowel that occurs before the final consonant. Thus, the aspect marker may appear to be fusional despite the fact that they come before anything else and thus the forms of the verb in each aspect still always rhyme. For example, below is the conjugation of welwa "to pick (fruit); to pull something off a support" in the continuous ("default"; no infix) and iterative (-at-) aspects:

welwa Past Present Imperative Intransitive 1st person 2nd person 3rd person Transitive 1st person 2nd person 3rd person

welwata Past Present Imperative Intransitive 1st person 2nd person 3rd person Transitive 1st person 2nd person 3rd person

The difference can be used to show a difference in number, as below:

Apapi welwafabi.

I picked cherries.

Apapi weliabi.

I picked a cherry.

Other aspects

Continuative aspect

The continuative aspect can be expressed with the affix -(p)py-, which goes after the verb stem and before the tense/person marker. This is a regular sound-changed variant of the standalone verb prib "to remain, stay". This always becomes -(p)pw-, since all verb suffixes begin with -b-, and a sound rule causing -yb- to change to -w- kicks in:

Tšapompwo?

Am I still dripping?

For extra emphasis, it can also be expressed by adding wawepwob to the above. This word can be placed anywhere in the sentence, but is usually adjacent to the verb:

Wawepwob tšapompwo?

Am I really still dripping?

Resumptive aspect

The resumptive aspect is used to show that someone is resuming an activity. It can be expressed with either a serial verb construction or a suffix on the main verb.

In the serial verb setup, the morpheme involved is plym, which is generally used as an intransitive and conjugates with the same tense as the verb it modifies. Plym is a regular -y verb (the final -y is unwritten), and thus produces sentences like

Plymwi popabi.

I began to speak again.

When marking the resumptive aspect by using a suffix on the main verb, the morpheme is historically identical with the above but has undergone sound changes that have turned into -pim-. Here, too, there is a final -y that is unwritten in the Romanization, which means that this suffix automatically turns any verb it modifies into a regular -y verb:

Popopimwi.

I began to speak again.

Inchoative aspect

The inchoative aspect is used to express that someone is starting an activity, whether for the first time or as a resumption of previous activity. (See #Resumptive_aspect above.) This can be expressed either as a verbal affix or by way of a serial verb construction.

As a serial verb, the commonest verb in use is sublam. This is a regular -am verb, and is generally used intransitively.

Sublambo leššo.

I'm beginning to understand.

As an affix, the morpheme is -(š)wu-, a syncopated version of the standalone verb sapwu. Most speakers do not realize the connection between these two morphemes because both have changed greatly from their original forms. Nevertheless, the final vowel is intact, and therefore any verb with the suffix -(š)wu- will conjugate in the same manner as sapwu itself. Thus one can say:

Pubwatšopi pibišwebi.

I started to pet my cat.

However, due to sound rules, the -š- of -šwu- disappears or mutates after a verb whose stem ends in -m or -p, and may disappear after certain labialized consonants as well. Some examples of this is

Vupiopi pessampwebi.

I started to cuddle my boyfriend.

Pubipassem pwapwi.

I started to walk on the pathway. (Note that this is an intransitive verb.)

For many verbs, the morpheme has shrunk so much that it has become difficult to hear, and in some cases, it actually has merged with the continuative aspect, which has a greatly different meaning. Thus, speakers will often double up the marking of the inchoative aspect by using both this affix and a serial verb construction. Thus, sentences such as

Pubipassem sublambi pwapwi.

which literally can be translated as

I started to begin to walk on the pathway.

Are in common use and are not generally seen as redundant.

Lastly, the inchoative aspect is often used when a resumptive meaning is intended. This is not seen as grammatically incorrect despite being ambiguous. Other times, a speaker will use the inchoative affix with the resumptive serial verb construction in order to indicate an intended resumptive meaning:

Plymwi popošwebi.

I began to speak again.

Cessative aspect

The cessative aspect is used to express that someone is stopping an activity. It can be expressed in several different ways. Like the others above, both serial verb constructions and a verbal affix are in common use.

Cessative aspect as a serial verb setup

As a serial verb the word is bum. Like other serial verb constructions, it is generally intransitive and bum matches the verb being modified in tense and person. Thus one would say

Bumbi bumpfapi bummafi.

I stopped kicking the chicken.

Note that the bumbi up above is at the beginning of the sentence, before even the object. This is more common with the cessative aspect serial verbs than with other serial verbs because the cessative aspect more strongly modifies the meaning of the verb than most other aspect markers do.

Cessative aspect as an affix

As an affix, the morpheme used for the cessative aspect is also bum, but this time it triggers stem changes in the words it modifies because Poswa has many historical sound changes involving morphemes beginning with -b and this morpheme has been used in this role for thousands of years. These sound changes are not the same as those that appear when one marks nouns with the plural suffix -bum because that particular -bum (which is unrelated) was a separate word, and therefore did not undergo sound changes, at the time that most of the involved sound changes occurred. Thus memorizing the rules for forming plurals is of little use in forming cessatives. There is therefore an entire table for each class of verbs.

Vowel stems

However, fortunately, the changes caused by -bum *do* line up with many consonant mutations that are triggered by forming verbs in general, differing only for verbs ending in -e, -i, and certain consonants. Furthermore, since -bum ends in an -m, it automatically makes all verbs to which it attaches into regular -m verbs. For example, from the verb stem taera "to run", one forms

Taebo.

I'm running.

This features a consonant mutation changing the -r- into -b- before adding the inflection vowel. The cessative version of this verb is

Taebumbo.

I just stopped running.

Which is intuitive and easily remembered. This example seemed more simple than most because it so happens that the mutated form of -r- is -b-, and -b- is the first consonant of -bum. Put another way, it could be said that the above word does not have -bum- as an infix but rather -umb-. However, this kind of misconception makes it more difficult for learners to use the appropriate forms because the -umb- analogy breaks down on many of the consonant-stem verbs. If one thinks instead of -bum- as a morpheme that triggers consonant mutation when attaching to a vowel-stem verb and then adds -(b)um, the rule never breaks down.

Likewise, from the verb stem pustila "to shake" one would form

Pustižabo.

I'm shaking you.

And the corresponding cessative form is

Pustižumbabo.

I've stopped shaking you.

Consonant stems

For verbs whose stems end in consonants, there are several other changes, all of which are found elsewhere in the language and not unique to -bum.

For verbs whose roots end in -s, the -s is deleted and, if an unstressed y remains as the final vowel in the word, a sound rule changing -yb- to -w- applies and thus the new verb stem ends in -wum. This is the same sound change found in noun plurals. This sound change also applies to the commonly used verb pys "to find", which lost its -s early on even in the standard present progressive aspect even though it was usually stressed. Thus one can say

Pwebi.

I found it.

But

Pwumbebi.

I stopped looking for them.

Use of the cessative imperative

The cessative is commonly used in the imperative, producing sentences such as "stop hitting me!" and the like. For the most part these differ from the indicatives in only a few phonemes. For example, from the above verb, one could form

Pustižumbybi!

Stop shaking me!

Although a common tendency is for this command to take a passive verb form, producing words such as

Pustižumbwub!

Stop shaking me!

This form is nominally one syllable shorter because a sound rule always triggers that changes the expected suffix *-byžub into -bwub. (However, strictly speaking this change is actually byžuby ---> bwuby, with the final -y's unwritten.)

Voice

Reciprocal voice

Verbal voice is marked primarily by changing the inflections. However, there are some lexical affixes that attach to the stem instead, and thus produce entirely new verbal roots. For example

Plabbži.

I danced.

contrasts with

Pop₁ plabblaši.₂

We₁ danced with each other.₂

where the reciprocal suffix -s attaches to the stem of the verb in order to convey the meaning "each other". This suffix generally pairs with intransitive verbs because its subject is also its object. This holds true even when the partners are separately named:

Pypub₁ wa₂ mapo₃ plabblašel.₄

The boy₁ and₂ the girl₃ danced together.₄

The verb can be made transitive in order to imply that while the two partners acted together, one was active and the other passive. This does not necessarily imply involuntary or forced action, but merely passive action. In this case, the passive partner must be placed into the accusative case:

Pypub₁ mapop₂ plabblašebel.₃

The boy₁ and the girl₂ danced together.₃ (He asked her to dance with him.)

Note that the -š- does not change to an echo consonant reduplicating the initial consonant of the root because it is derived from a palatalized -s rather than being original to the word.

Some verbs are used so often with the reciprocal voice that their original roots have nearly disappeared from use. For example, mušos "to play with each other" is common, but mušo "to play" by itself appears only in compounds, usually with sound changes, such as bempom "play room, den for babies".

Reflexive voice

The reflexive voice is marked by adding a -p to the stem of the verb. Using the example above, one could say

Pwopwaby₁ mušofel.₂

Each of the children₁ played by themselves.₂

Even though, as above, the bare verb mušo is not generally used, Poswobs are familiar enough with the -s/-p alternation to apply it to coin new words such as mušop "play by oneself".

Verbal mood

Poswa uses particles to mark most of its verbal moods. However, some are formed by fusionally inflecting the verb.

Indicative mood

The indicative mood is the default for all sentences and takes no marker, although, like most languages, emphasis can be added by using words such as "truly" and "clearly", generally at the beginning of the clause.

Interrogative mood

The interrogative mood is marked with question particles such as tus and pa, but is otherwise identical to the indicative, even in word order.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is formed, in every case, by adding -p to the inflected form of the verb. For those forms that end in consonants, the same regular sound changes that apply to nouns also apply here. Effectively the verbs are considered as nouns and the subjunctive mood marker is the same as the accusative case marker -p.

Since the vowels are the same on all of the tables above, it is only necessary to produce one table showing the subjunctive mood, as the endings here can be applied equally to all of the verbs in the tables above. The verb pwembwi "to shoot, to throw an object forcefully at a target" is used because there was no example of a verb ending in -i in the -e/-i table above.

INDICATIVE pwembwi Past Present Imperative Intransitive 1st person pwembwibi pwembwibo pwembwibub 2nd person pwembwibe pwembwibae pwembwibi 3rd person pwembwibel pwembwiba pwembwibob Transitive 1st person pwembwibebi pwembwibabo pwembwibbub 2nd person pwembwibebe pwembwibabae pwembwibbi 3rd person pwembwibebel pwembwibaba pwembwibbob

SUBJUNCTIVE pwembwi Past Present Imperative Intransitive 1st person pwembwibup pwembwibop pwembwibup 2nd person pwembwibep pwembwibaep pwembwibup 3rd person pwembwibep pwembwibap pwembwibop Transitive 1st person pwembwibebup pwembwibabop pwembwibbup 2nd person pwembwibebep pwembwibabaep pwembwibbup 3rd person pwembwibebep pwembwibabap pwembwibbop

Note that many forms merge in the subjunctive mood, and the use of pronouns or other words is sometimes necessary to keep the distinction. Whereas the merger between the 2nd person imperative and the 1st person past generally causes no trouble in indicative verbs, the three way merger between the various -bup forms can cause confusion in the subjunctive.

Desiderative mood

The desiderative mood is used to express wants and desires. Poswa handles this in several different ways, none of which are limited to expressing the feelings of the speaker. (This is why Poswob teachers do not consider this to be a true mood; rather, it is a means of expressing something that in some other languages would be a distinct mood.)

The easiest and most common method is to use a serial verb setup, usually with sase "to want, desire" at the beginning of the sentence and the predicate verb after it:

Puviopo papepwabo.

I'm burning my clothes.

Sasebo puviopo papepwabo.

I want to burn my clothes.

Note that the second verb is still in the indicative mood, not the subjunctive.

Usage of inflected nouns to express wants and desires

Sabas

Poswa can also use sabas, the possessive form of saba, an old word for "key". It can be used as a concise way to say "can I have a..." at a bar or restaurant. Since it is usually unstressed, it has undergone the sound change of sab ---> š before a vowel, which occurred only in unstressed syllables. Remarkably, it takes different forms for different persons:

Šos nobellam?

Can I have some ice cream?

Šes nobellam?

Can you have some icecream?

Šas nobellam?

Can they have some ice-cream?

However, it could be said that sabas is not a true mood marker because it does not generally occur with a verb. Note that these words are marked first with the "possessed" markers -o -e -a, which look like infixes because they are then capped with the final possessive marker -s.

Note, also, that saba and sabas are no longer used in a general sense to mean "key", as that word has been replaced with the longer word šalios, which has undergone the same sound change described up above by analogy with the unstressed auxiliary words.

The infix -ib-

Another method is to take a noun and add the infix -ib- to the last syllable of the noun. This infix mutates the last consonant in the word and has no other effect. Then, a possessive ending is added to the mutated noun. This is the same construction used to indicate "I have...".

Habilitative mood

This is used to present that the subjerct of that snentcence is able to do the verb,. Note that in Eng, many people say "I can hear you", etc, but in Poswa this would be a simple verb because "I hear" ad "Ican hear" are usually the same.

Expressing "to try, attempt"

The act of attempting to do something, without reference to its success or failure, can be expressed by a serial verb setup involving the primary verb fipaema followed by the verb being attempted. Usually, the two verbs are placed directly together rather than being separated by the object of the verb. Thus one can say

Fipaevi babribi lupponwap.

I tried to hide the body.

An alternative method is to use the verbal affix -misi- between the verb stem and the inflection. This turns any verb it modifies into a regular verb:

Babrimisibi lupponwap.

I tried to hide the body.

A small number of verbs have developed fusional forms of this affix, generally involving deletion of the first -i-, which triggers other further sound changes. For example, the very common verb pys "to find" combines with misi to form the verb pimpi "to search for; to try to find something". This is a regular -i-stem verb, producing sentences such as

Pimpibabo paffamios.

I'm searching for my medicine.

Some such verbs are derived from stems that are otherwise obsolete. For example, the obsolete verb stem *wiš- "to learn, be taught" is the base for the modern verb wišumpi- "to study", but does not generally occur without the affix even in other compounds.

Note that the deletion of the first -i- in -misi- can only occur when it follows a verb root ending in a vowel. Although there are some examples deep in the history of the language whereby an initial -m- in an affix drops out, which could then trigger the -i- to drop as well, the use of the affix -misi- only came into play long after this sound change had stopped operating. The reason pys was able to undergo the change is that there was a separate sound rule deleting -s before a voiced consonant, thus producing the shorter stem py-. This rule itself, however, is no longer operative.

Lexical derivations involving fusional suffixed -misi-

Below is a table of verbs with various permutations of the affix -misi-. Verb roots marked with an asterisk are those that are no longer commonly seen in isolation:

Verb	meaning	Derivation	meaning
pys	to find	pimpi	to search for
*wiš	to learn	wišumpi	to study
bavba	to injure, harm	bavbampe	to attack
*wapa	to push down	wapampe	to compete, try to win
mi	to see	mimpi	to try to see, look carefully
*wa	to eat	wampe	to try to eat, avoid vomiting

Some examples of these verbs in use are below:

Wapampebabo.

I'm competing against you.

Papwopwapi bavbampebebi.

I attacked the dog.

Pubvwo. Wampebo.

I'm sick. I'm trying to keep from throwing up.

Verbs indicating successful actions

The infix -ep- can be inserted into the final syllable of the root of any verb to emphasize that it describes a successful action. This is an infix, not an affix, so it resembles the aspect markers such as -at- more than it resembles most other mood markers. This infix is rare, since most actions spoken of are generally assumed to have been completed successfully, but it can be used in order to give emphasis when the listener is in doubt.

A few verbs have irregular or suppletive forms for this particular inflection, generally verbs whose stems end in consonants and therefore have a separate oblique form that appears when infixes are placed within them. Thus, it is not anything unique to the infix -ep- that triggers the alternative forms, but rather, these verbs share a single oblique form for all such infixes. For example, using the irregular verb pys "to find", one can say:

Ipae, puntatšopi pipepwebi.

Yes, I've really found my marbles.

Lastly, the -ep- infix can be used to show that an action was done on purpose rather than being involuntary.

Ipae, pumblepwebi.

Yes, I laughed at you on purpose.

Verbs indicating unsuccessful actions

The most common way to indicate an unsuccessful action is to take the subjunctive form of the verb and add a second verb, ta, to it. The verb ta is not used by itself, but carries the meaning "to fail, to try unsuccessfully".

Subjunctive

Because all subjunctives of all verbs end in -p, and because there exists a sound rule automatically changing any unaccented -pt- to -p-, and lastly because all verbs ending in -a lose the -a in their conjugations, the "unsuccessful" suffix appears to consist of a simple verbal ending attached to the subjunctive form of the verb being described. This creates sentences such as

Pubbabumbapi pwembwibebupi.

I tried to shoot the duck (but I missed).

Since the subjunctive forms of all verbs and the accusative forms of all nouns both end in -p, in sentences like this where the object is placed first and the verb second, the two words will rhyme.

Infix

A less common method of expressing unsuccessful actions is to use the accusative form of the noun root that inhabits the verb stem followed by the same suffix ta. This was the original method, and more closely resembles the setups that Poswa uses for other similar functions. However, due to the same sound change described above, for many verb stems, this particular inflection coalesces with other forms of the same verb, or with other forms of other verbs. In general, verbs that end in vowels can "safely" use this form of the verb since the result will be a suffix such as -po, as the -p that marks the accusative is protected from being changed to -f- by the fact that it was followed by a -t- at the time the sound change of p ---> f occurred. Verbs that end in a consonant will change to their oblique form and then add that same suffix, with the -p again protected by the disappearing -t-. Nevertheless, this method of expressing unsuccessful action is found mostly in certain commonly used verbs and not as an ad-hoc formation such as the duck hunting example above. One common example of use of this verb is

Pipopi.

I couldn't find it.

This is formed from pip, the oblique form of the verb pys "to find", changed into its accusative form (pip carries an underlying suffix -o), plus the verb stem ta "to fail", which disappears entirely from the resulting final word form, plus the 1st person past tense suffix -i.

Essentially the difference between the two formations is that the subjunctive method leads to repeated verbal endings, since the verbal endings are expressed both on the main verb and on the suffix that carries with it the meaning "to fail". This makes this method the only possible method to use when one wants to express person-changing verbs such as "I failed to make you learn."

Serial verbs

However, often speakers will use a serial verb setup such as žaepsa before the verb.

Other moods

Nouns can form mood markers of unusual types that are difficult to describe. For example, the word "please" is generally translated as pwaewam, and used as a prefix to the rest of the sentence. Pwaewam is the locative case of pwaewa "charity, favor, good deed". This is in contrast to languages such as Khulls where "please" was actually a fusional inflection on the verb.

Negative verbs

Verbal negation is accomplished in several ways, and in most cases, a Poswa sentences with a negative verb will use more than one type of negation on that verb. That is to say, it has redundancy, the same way Poswa verbs often have two or even three tense markers on.

The affix pep

Most verbs can be negated by adding the affix pep, which also functions as a standalone verb meaning "false; to be false":

Pabblombebi.

I whistled at you.

Pabblompepebi.

I didn't whistle at you.

If the verb to which -pep is added is irregular, it becomes a regular verb that follows the expected conjugation patterns for verbs ending in -p:

Pappwebi.

I bit you.

Pappopepebi.

I didn't bite you.

Note that the irregular verb pappo "bite", whose transitive oblique stem is pappw-, becomes regular again when the affix -pep is added. (This verb borrowed most of its conjugation from a previously existing verb pappop "to chew", but the negative form is pappopepebi and not *pappoppepebi because of a sound rule simplifying the second of two consecutive geminates. The merger happened before this sound change, but had it not, the negatives of the two verbs would have collided anyway.)

Auxiliary negative verbs

However, although these sentences are all proper and grammatically acceptable, in many cases a Poswa speaker will want to emphasize at the very beginning of the sentence that the verb is negative. After all, Poswa sentences often place the verb at the end of the sentence, and some sentences can be quite long. There are several auxiliary negative markers to choose from, and although they can be placed throughout a sentence or clause, they are generally placed at the beginning. The different auxiliaries have different shades of meaning:

Pubi pappopepebi.

No, I didn't bite you.

Pwupofi pappopepebi.

I didn't bite you yet. (So watch out.)

Pupebi pappopepebi.

I didn't bite you. (Someone else must've done it!)

Pupi pappopepebi.

I avoided biting you. (You don't look very tasty.)

Also, since they are grammatically considered intransitive verbs, the auxiliaries change to accomodate different person and tense markers. Essentially, they agree with the main verb in person and tense, but not always transitivity:

Pupi papapapopi pappopepebi.

I avoided biting my snake.

Pupel papapapo pappopepebel.

My snake avoided biting me.

Suppletive negative forms

Some verbs, however, do not take the infix -pep to become negative, but have instead suppletive forms which behave as independent verbs. This class includes all verbs that end in -o apart from the -o class's own irregulars, such as pappo above, which is excluded because it borrowed its conjugation from a previously existing pappop. Thus, using the verb popo "to speak, talk, converse", one can say

Poparabo.

I'm talking to you.

The change of -o- to -ar- here is regular, and one would expect it to change back to -o- again for the negative form. However, one cannot say

*Pubo popopepabo.

No, I'm not talking to you.

Because popo belongs to the class of verbs that have suppletive negative forms. Originally, a large percentage of Poswa verbs had suppletive negative forms, and they were easily remembered because there were not many irregular verbs to complicate the picture. However, as the number of irregulars grew, suppletives became less predictable, and they hung on only in certain commonly used verbs and in the regular -o conjugation class. Thus, instead, one hears sentences like

Pubo pofwabo.

No, I'm not talking to you.

Where the last consonant before the -o is replaced with a mutated form and the -o itself is replaced with labialization, thus placing the verb into the -y class. Largely, this irregularity remained in the language because it made the verbs it applied to two syllables shorter, and because all regular -o verbs otherwise conjugated the same way. The operation that produced this alternate negative verb stem did not shorten other classes of verbs as much, and in many cases the negative stem simply merged with the affirmative early on, thus forcing the Poswobs to adopt fronted auxiliaries and the infix -pep.

Other suppletive negatives

Most verbs with suppletive negative forms are in the -o class, as above. However, many commonly used verbs are not, and have retained suppletive negatives simply for ease of use. Often, these are found as complaints or as quick replies to polar questions, and are often used by themselves without the fronted auxiliaries common in longer sentences:

Šifo.

I don't know.

Žampfo.

I don't understand.

Utšwo.

I don't remember.

Wafebo.

I can't help.

Mipfo.

I can't see.

It is not improper to use the fronted auxiliaries here, although it is less common. Despite being suppletives, these verbs are still perceived by Poswa speakers as having an inherently negative meaning, and could be compared to English sentences such as "No, I missed it":

Pupebo wafebo.

I can't help. (Hopefully someone else can.)

Pep as a standalone verb

The infix -pep used above can still function as a standalone verb, and is considered to be part of the suppletive class because it is assigned to the verb bu "to do", but replaces the stem of that verb instead of attaching to it:

Pepebi!

I didn't do it!

A small number of Poswa verbs early on acquired -bu as a suffix (generally to repair a defective verb that had coalesced with a different verb or become highly irregular), and these verbs replace what is left of the -bu with -pep when they turn negative.

Other standalone negative verbs

Some of the other verbs up above can also be used in standalone form as an elliptical way to deny a previous thought or statement. They are always intransitive, regardless of the transitivity of the action being referenced. The most commonly used is

Pupi!

I didn't!

I didn't do it!

I didn't do anything!

And so on. This verb in other contexts has the specific meaning of deliberately avoiding something, but is used in a more neutral sense when it functions as a standalone verb because the verb

Pubi!

I didn't (do it)!

can also mean

I drew.

Despite the fact that this pubi is usually transitive, the confusion of meanings leads to speakers avoiding pubi in favor of pupi. The others behave essentially the same way:

Pwupofi!

I haven't done it yet!

Pupebi!

*I* didn't do it!

Infinitive

There is no true infinitive, but, in transitive verbs, what functions as one can be formed by changing "bo" to "va" in those forms that end in -bo. The passive form of this changes the va to la. This is called an impersonal verb rather than an infinitive.

Thus, for example, from the noun posapa "fire" comes the verb posafava "to burn (up)", and its passive form posafala. This is best understood as a verb that is inflected for voice and tense but not for person, so posafava really means "someone is burning something" and needs additional words in order to take on the functions of an infinitive. Note that this pattern exists only for transitive verbs. For intransitive verbs, the suffix -(b)a (originally a particle) is used. This suffix forms verbs that in English would often be adjectives. It is not etymologically related to the 3rd person intransitive present tense verb ending -ba, but has come to be treated as if it were the same ending, thus heightening the impression that most "adjectives" are merely intransitive verbs.

Serial person marking

Functions that in many languages are given to infinitives are done in Poswa and Pabappa by verbs inflected for person. This leads to internal rhymes, because all verbs, even irregular ones, reliably use the same vowels for the same person markings. Thus for example

Banambo¹ papibabo.²

I enjoy¹ spitting on you².

However, with passive verbs, an impersonal form is sometimes called for, to show that the action being described is not being performed by the speaker:

Tiša banambae papibala?

Do you enjoy being spit on?

has no person marking on its verb, and thus does not rhyme. It contrasts with

Tiša banambae papibažae?

Do you enjoy being spit on by me?

which has a 2nd person marker on the verb, and is passive, and thereby implies 1st person agent. This could be replaced with

Tiša banambae papibabo?

Do you enjoy me spitting on you?

which has an active verb and a 1st person marker, but the passive form is more common because Poswobs prefer to use the rhyming verbs to show agreement even though the agent of the first verb is the patient of the second.

Subject incorporation

Poswa verbs can incorporate indefinite subjects. For example, taempos means "children playing with each other". This is a compound of tae "children" + mušos "playing with each other". It is conjugated the same as any other verb, so the one-word sentence "Taempoša" means "Some children are playing with each other."

Toddlers on the treadmill

The incorporated subject is tae, which means "young children", but is not the most common word for children as it has been mostly replaced by pwopwa. Verbs with incorporated subjects often preserve fossilized meanings of nouns. For example, tae meant toddler originally, and is the same word as Khulls lē which generally refers to children who can walk ("toddle") but still need diapers (lé). As above, tae is rarely used as a subject in modern Poswa, but survives in various other uses, such as a child equivalent to the agent suffix -ta, which has come to be restricted to adults. For example, pwampta means a cashier or shopkeeper, but a pwamptae can mean a young child helping out in her mother's carpet store or a preschooler running a lemonade stand. Like many words, it can be used metaphorically, and has even come to be used for adults as a form of familiar address. Meanwhile, an old word for baby, bul, has moved up and pushed out tae in many of its original uses for children. For example, the commonest word for "to guess" is besse, originally meaning "baby's answer, baby's solution" because a baby can only guess at anything it wants to know. But it came to be seen as "child's answer" before its meaning became fixed. Then a word originally meaning fetus or embryo, bamba, came to be the commonest word for a human baby, and the new coinages pammo and wabvi took over for fetus.

Nevertheless, one would not simply say *Tae taempoša to indicate that a specific group of children are playing with each other. It would be grammatically correct, but tae is rarely used as a subject. Any word could do, but the most common word for children in modern Poswa is pwopwa, from a word originally meaning an apprentice. This word, like other words, is unmarked for number, but takes the plural suffixes -bum and -by to indicate that that being plural is significant to the meaning of the sentence. Thus, the sentence Pwopwabum taempoša has the same meaning as just Taempoša alone, but has a definite subject (i.e. "the children" rather than "some children") and is more emphatic. It could be used to mean "the children are playing with each other like children often do." (If the noun were singular, but the verb retained the -s ending, the meaning would be taken as "the child is playing with himself".)

The purpose of subject incorporation is to make new verbs that can be used with other subjects. While taempos does mean "children playing with each other", it can be used for adults in a metaphorical sense to indicate that they are behaving like children (in this case, it is nearly always a compliment, not an insult). These compound verbs are no different than simple noun+verb compounds except for the fact that sound changes which do not normally apply across word boundaries are allowed to take place, and some coinages which were made far back in history retain sound changes that have accumulated over time. This is why the part of the word that means "play with each other" is simply -mpos, which would not be pronouncible in isolation.

Incorporation of inanimate nouns

Pipsis is another subject-incorporating verb, but pipi "tree" is inanimate, so the meaning is passive with respect to the tree, and the sentence needs an animate subject to make sense. The word pipi for tree is rarely used in modern Poswa, as it is homophonous with several other words, but it still is used in the narrower sense of a fruit tree (a meaning shared with the longer pispum). Thus, although pipsis is widely understood, the first part of the compound is sometimes replaced with a different morpheme, resulting in words such as pispumpis, fampis, ipisis, povvasis, publofsis, pobbasis, popesis, and so on. Note that the verb for "sleep" is normally sys, but the sound-mutated version from pipsis has carried over to the other words and is effectively now a second verb for sleeping.

Passive animate incorporation

Purely from a syntactical perspective, sometimes even a noun that appears to be an incorporated subject can assume a passive role. For example, as above, tae "children" is animate, and functions as an agent in words such as taempos "children playing with each other" and talsafi "children counting on their hands", both of which can be used metaphorically or literally. However, the verb taeppa "to kidnap, abduct" also exists, and its structure is essentially the same as that of its English counterpart: tae "children" + -ppa "to abduct"; i.e. "kid" + "nab". Thus, despite the lack of an accusative marker on tae, the verb is readily understood to refer to a child victim and not a child perpetrator when used in everyday speech.

Nevertheless, when used with definite subjects, the subject of the sentence again takes on the active role. Thus

Pwopwabum raefobop taepfebel.

means

"The children kidnapped the toads."

rather than "The children were kidnapped by toads" or "the children made toads kidnap them" or some other such thing. Likewise the simpler sentence

Pwopwabum taepfel.

still means

"The children kidnapped [someone]."

rather than referring to the children themselves being kidnapped by an outsider. Further, the unlikely construction

Pwopwa laserbop taepfebel.

translates as

"The child kidnapped the enemy soldiers." (He was a pacifist who just wanted to protect his people.) indicating that the meaning of the verb holds regardless of how implausible its implication.

Incorporation of inalienable nouns

Body parts and other inalienable nouns can also be placed before a verb. In this case, they really are considered subjects, but only because they derive their animacy from an unspoken possessor. Often, especially with body parts, these words serve mostly as intensifiers, as the verb is generally already specific enough to get the meaning across clearly.

For example:

Pappapwebi.

means "I slapped you.", and

Peppapwapwebi.

means "I slapped you with (my) hand". The meaning is essentially the same in both words, but peppapwapwebi implies a more forceful slap. (The change of -pp- to -pw- is due to a sound rule.)

Forming questions

Yes-no questions

There is no "interrogative" mood for verbs in Poswa. In many contexts, a sentence can be made into a question simply by placing the verb into the subjunctive mood and leaving everything else, including the word order, intact. However, in most situations Poswobs will mark the sentence as a question in other ways, such as using question particles. Tus, placed at the beginning of a sentence, makes that sentence into a yes-no question. At the end of a sentence, the particle pa, which means "or" in certain contexts, can also be used. This is generally "spaced" away from the preceding sentence by a pause intended to draw the listener's attetnion, even when the context is already clear. Double-marking a sentence by beginning with tus and ending with pa while also placing the verb into the subjunctive mood is optional but not frowned upon.

Thus:

Wivafta¹ pešfop² posafebel.³

The teacher¹ burned³ the book.²

contrasts with sentences such as

Tus wivafta pešfop posafebep, pa?

Did the teacher burn the book, or ...?

Non-accusative verbs

All verbs in Poswa have an unspoken and unwritten prefix showing which case the object of the verb is placed into. Most verbs govern the accusative case, and the prefix that shows this is wi. This is considered part of the verb, but is never pronounced or written down even in a dictionary. It is considered a separate word. Thus, for example, the verb for "to promise" in Poswa is technically wi pambap, but even in a dictionary, one will only find an entry for pambap.

Verbs that govern cases other than the accusative have different prefixes. These are still normally unspoken and unwritten, but will appear in a dictionary in order to remind the student of the proper use of the verb in question.

Locative

For example, the verb for "to become" is dži tiša. It is both a highly irregular verb and one that places its object into the locative case rather than the accusative. The verb behaves mostly as if its stem were a hyper-regular p-. Thus one can say

Pobbam pebel.

He became an oak tree.

(The tiša stem contracts to simply p- because of sound rules that are triggered in constructions such as this where two words are spelled separately but treated as a prosodic unit.) Because of the potential for confusion, this verb is usually used directly after its object; that is, the word order is not flexible the way it is for most accusative verbs. Thus, for example, one would not normally say

*Pobbam pwuwumbam pebel.

He became an oak tree in the forest.

Because the speaker would likely initially hear the sentence as if pwuwumbam "in the forest" were the object of the verb, and thus imagine a man becoming a forest while trapped inside an oak tree.

Other cases

The full list of prefixes corresponding to the six core noun cases is below:

Case	Prefix	Sample verb	Meaning
Nominative	a
Accusative	wi
Locative	dži
Possessive	ši
Essive	e
Instrumental	y

Interjections

Interjections can be considered to be either a subset of the nouns or a subset of the verbs. However, going far enough back in the history of the language, the "verb" analysis is shown to be the only correct one, as the nouns that resemble interjections were themselves originally verbs.

Saying yes and no

Yes

The word for "yes" in Poswa is a verb derived from an obsolete stem meaning "correct, right". Thus Poswobs saying

Ipae!

Yes!

Are really saying "You're right!" And therefore, the verb can be conjugated like any other verb, producing

Ipo!

Yes! (I'm right!)

Ipa!

Yes! (They're right!)

Wivafta ipa!

Yes! The teacher is right!

And so on. The verb has had an alternate stem without the initial i- for thousands of years, but this is generally only used when the entire verb is repeated twice, producing

Paepae!

Yes yes!

Though even this is rare outside of the 2nd person form, since both popo and papa have other established meanings.

No

Saying "no" is a bit more complicated.

Expressing emotions

Nevertheless, interjections have carved out a niche for themselves in Poswa, and the speakers do not often think about what grammatical part of speech they should be grouped with. Poswa's interjections are often seen as childish and rude by surrounding cultures, as the Poswobs have a tradition for verbal bluntness that is rare even among their close relatives.

Many interjections are used to express pain and unpleasant emotions. For example, a Poswob speaker who was too slow at getting through a revolving door might say Pup!, which is the accusative case of an obsolete word for hand. Thus, it can be analyzed as roughly equivalent to the English "Ouch! My hand (got hurt)!" even though the word for hand from which pup is derived is no longer in use in modern Poswa.

Many of the interjections are one syllable long, but some have two or three syllables. Poswob children learn early to say

Bevo!

I have to go to the bathroom!

This is historically descended from a longer verb that got worn down over several thousand years of sound changes. It is cognate to the modern words bwem "bathroom" and vub "to spray".

Interjections and incomplete sentences

In Poswa, many sentences that might seem incomplete are actually grammatically correct. For example, in English one might say "Of course!" and be told that it's merely a sentence fragment rather than a sentence. But in Poswa it is difficult to think of a sentence that is ungrammatical, since both verbs and nouns can stand alone. However, only a verb can stand alone without an implied dependence on another sentence. Thus interjections like

Nubampoža!

Of course!

are grouped with verbs rather than nouns.

Irregular verbs

Poswa has many irregular verbs, although many of these can be treated as regular if the speaker imagines an "oblique" stem that replaces the nominal stem from which the verb was originally derived. These oblique stems often end in consonants or clusters which are not permitted at the end of Poswa words and therefore are not usually thought of as independent words.

Examples of irregular verbs

See Poswa irregular verbs for a partial listing.

mi

The verb mi "to see" is an irregular verb with a stem change to the oblique variant v-:

mi		Past	Present	Imperative
Intransitive	1st person	vi	vo	vub
	2nd person	ve	vae	vi
	3rd person	vel	va	vob
Transitive	1st person	vebi	vabo	vwub
	2nd person	vebe	vabae	vwi
	3rd person	vebel	vaba	vwob