Senjecas Syntax

4.1 Word Order - saɱpa̋fa

• 4.1.1 Senjecas has an object-verb (OV) syntax, which means that all modifiers (adjectives, possessives, postpositional phrases, clauses) are placed before the noun they modify. The finite verb is the last element in its sentence.
• 4.1.2 Sentence order is: (subject) + (adverbial time phrase) + (adverbial place phrase) + (other postpositional phrase) + (object) + finite verb + (interrogative) + (negative).

The millstone under the oak tree is heavy.

perk̬ı̋s néra mólta̋ino gų̋ro e̋sa:

The stag whose antlers are broken is fighting.

ȝo nés cą̋ros ȝa̋faþos vűa—ke̋rɱe ca̋ta:

• 4.1.3 A verb in the imperative mood is placed last in the sentence. The imperative form is used for the jussive and the hortatory moods as well. If the context is clear, no personal pronoun is needed as subject. If the imperative verb has a direct object, a predicate adjective, or a dependent verb, these precede the imperative verb.

Throw the ball.

(tú) ge̋lom ȝę̋e:

• 4.1.4 If the personal pronoun is repeated in the sentence, the subject pronoun is omitted.

Throw your ball.

tús ge̋lom ȝę̋e:

Throw his ball.

(tú) nús ge̋lom ȝę̋e:

• 4.1.5 In an OV language titles are postposed.

King William I reigned 21 years.

se̋mtu ɱilhe̋lmu rę̋ᵹu ẋűr sem e̋non e-re̋ƶa:

4.2 Definitions - tősas

• 4.2.1 A sentence expresses a thought in words. Syntax treats of the relation of these words to one another. A sentence may contain a declaration, a question, a command (imperative or subjunctive), or an exclamation. Each of these may be either affirmative or negative.
• 4.2.2 Every sentence must contain a verb. The verb may or may not be accompanied by other words. The subject is that about which something is stated. The predicate is that which is stated about the subject. For example, in the sentence ma̋kis na̋nmis vų̋a, the poppies are in bloom, "the poppies" is the subject and "are in bloom" is the predicate.
• 4.2.3. A verb makes the simplest form of sentence:

Descriptions of the weather: sų̋ɱa, It is raining.

When the context is clear: (nu) rę̋sa, He runs.

• 4.2.4 A simple sentence contains only one clause.
• 4.2.5 When any form of e̋sa or vų̋a, be, connects the subject with a following noun, adjective, or phrase, the verb is called the copula, and what follows is called the predicate, e.g., ma̋nos sőȝos vų̋a, (my) hands are cold. Because there are two words expressing existence, the copula may not be omitted in Senjecas.
• 4.2.6 That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the object. The object may be either direct or indirect, e.g., in nu tı̋r mę̋on te̋rnon olnús o e-lűᵹa, he promised him three measures of wheat, "three measures" is the direct object and "him" the indirect object.
• 4.2.7 Verbs which can have a direct object are called transitive; those which cannot are called intransitive. In Senjecas, most verbs are ambitransitive, that is, they can be either transitive or intransitive.

4.3 Predicate Noun and Adjective – ɱa̋iþo fę̋tok̬e fęþga̋nok̬e

• 4.3.1 With verbs signifying to be, to become, to appear, to taste, to be named, to be chosen, to be made, to be thought, to be regarded, etc., a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject. These verbs are called copulative verbs.

The king has become angered by your speech.

re̋ᵹu tús leuðsaɱős ge̋gaþu ı̨̋la:

This man is king.

i-ɱı̋ru re̋ᵹu e̋sa:

These apples taste good.

i-abe̋los da̋los ƶę̋sa:

• 4.3.2 The predicate adjective with these verbs agrees with the subject in class, number and case.

That girl is very pretty.

a-pa̋ḷu lábu gőbu e̋sa:

• 4.3.3 A predicate adjective or noun is placed immediately before the finite verb phrase.

This custom is popular with the young people.

i-gűa bekűm áða le̋uða vų̋a:

4.4 Apposition – ȝővta

• 4.4.1 A substantive annexed to another substantive to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. This is called apposition. The noun thus used is called an appositive and is placed after the noun to which it is an appositive.

I, the prince, have given an order.

mu asűru ę̋vom ę̋va:

• 4.4.2 This structure is also used to translate the expressions "none other than" and "nothing else but", using nyf̣únu, no one else.

Walking up the steps was none other than my old school buddy.

renı̋ȝon ána ne̋ðantu nyf̣únu ƶę̋ru mu-túnępǫ̋nu e-vűa:

• 4.4.3 A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where in English "as" or a like word would be used.

Horses are being offered to the sun god as a sacrifice.

mőres lı̋to sųlȝuműs o lı̋taþes ı̋la:

• 4.4.4 The appositive of contents denotes a receptacle and that which it contains.

The child is carrying a basket of peaches.

cı̋cu k̬e̋som te̋fin ne̋xa:

4.5 Adjectives – fęþga̋nlos

4.5.1 Agreement of Adjectives – fęþganlőm ċőxa

• 4.5.1.1 Attributive adjectives agree with their substantives in class only. This applies to adjectives of whatever kind: determinate, non-determinate, or participles.

red box, re̋uðo ı̋vko; red boxes, re̋uðo ı̋vkos

red bird, re̋uðe ɱe̋ȝe; red birds, re̋uðe ɱe̋ȝes

red flower, re̋uði na̋ni; red flowers, re̋uði na̋nis

• 4.5.1.2 If, however, the attributive adjective is separated from its substantive by another phrase, it must then agree in class, case and number.

the white cow in the stable.

pa̋ȝes ᵹomős éna ɱa̋kes:

• 4.5.1.3 Because they are not preposed, predicate adjectives must agree with their substantives in class, case and number. They may be connected to their substantives by the copula or a copulative verb, becoming a part of the predicate or assertion made of the subject.

The doves are white.

pelőnves pa̋ȝes e̋sa:

• 4.5.1.4 An attributive adjective (šę̋ðɱo fęþga̋nlo) qualifying several substantives agrees with the nearest substantive in class and is understood with the rest.

the injured horse and rider.

ma̋te mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e

• 4.5.1.5 A predicate adjective (ɱa̋iþo fęþga̋nlo) qualifying several substantives agrees in class, number and case with the nearest substantive.

The horse and rider are injured.

mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e ma̋tu vų̋a:

4.5.2 Adjectives as Nouns - fęþga̋nlos fęþőm góþa

• 4.5.2.1 An attributive adjective may be used as a noun. It is put in the class of the missing noun.

pőri, just; pőru, just man

vı̋ni, important; vı̋nos, important things

4.6 The Cases – ne̋udas

4.6.1 The Nominative Case - fęþne̋uda

• The nominative case marks substantives that are used as the subject of a finite verb or in the predicate after copulative verbs.

ɱı̋ru e-ǧe̋ma:, the man came.

nu ɱı̋ru e̋sa:, He is a man.

4.6.2 The Stative Case - ðęne̋uda

• The primary function of the stative case is to state the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively. Other uses include the partitive idea or the idea of separation or source. A substantive in the stative case may limit the meaning of another substantive, to express various relations, many of which are denoted by "of" or by the possessive case in English.

4.6.2.1 The Stative Case with Nouns – fętőm súna ðęne̋uda

• 4.6.2.1.1 The stationary stative is used to mark the objects of postpositions that do not indicate a change of position.

The wounded saiga stood under the fir tree.

ɱą̋aþe dı̋ᵹe ðanı̋s néra e-cűra:

ɱą̋-a-þe	dı̋ᵹ-e	ðan-ı̋s	néra	e=cűr-a
wound-IND-PPTCP	saiga-NOM.SG	fir.tree-STA.SG	under	PST=stand-IND

• 4.6.2.1.2 The local stative indicates the place at which something happens. It is used with the postposition éna.

The two armies clashed at the foot of the mountain.

d̮ő őmus ǧarős tųfős éna e-tų̋ga:

d̮ő	őm-us	ǧar-ős	tųf-ős	éna	e=tų̋g-a
two	army-NOM.PL	mountain-STA.SG	base-STA.SG	at	PST=clash-IND

• 4.6.2.1.3 The temporal stative indicates the time at which something happens. It is used with the postposition éna.

The caravan will set out at dawn.

sa̋þo vaiᵹa̋s éna u-vı̋da:

sa̋þ-o	vaiᵹ-a̋s	éna	u=vı̋d-a
caravan-NOM.SG	dawn-STA.SG	at	FUT=leave-IND

• 4.6.2.1.4 The possessive stative indicates possession or some other close relationship.

tąta̋s ɱę̋so, the father’s house

ɱirűm leidę̋fto, the men’s team

• 4.6.2.1.5 The subjective stative indicates the subject of an action or feeling.

The love of the people (i.e., that the people have) for their king is great.

leuðűs ɱe̋na nu-ręᵹűs o me̋ƶa vų̋a:

leuð-űs	ɱe̋n-a	nu=ręᵹ-űs	o	me̋ƶ-a	vų̋-a
people-STA.PL	love-NOM.SG	their=king-STA.SG	for	great-NOM.SG	be-IND

• 4.6.2.1.6 The objective stative indicates the object of an action or feeling.

The murder of the prince saddened the people.

asurűs ką̋da le̋uðum e-se̋uga:

asur-űs	ką̋d-a	le̋uð-um	e-se̋ug-a
prince-STA.SG	murder-NOM.SG	people-MOT.SG	PST=sadden-IND

• 4.6.2.1.7 The metrical stative marks substantives which measure space, time or value.

tı̋r aha̋s ta̋ᵹo, a three-day’s journey

bűn peda̋m ǫ̋ni da̋ri, an eight-foot tall tree

d̬ő ẋur oȝe̋m mőre, a horse worth 40 sheep

• 4.6.2.1.8 The partitive stative indicates the whole about which parts are spoken.

zɔðlűm ɱe̋umus, many of the farmers

• 4.6.2.1.9 The numerical stative is used with the nouns sa̋to, hundred; ṭűmo, thousand; and the higher numbers. They and their compounds are used with a stative plural noun.

ną̋l ną̋ɱos, four ships

nąɱőm ną̋l sa̋tos, 400 ships

4.6.2.2 The Stative Case with Verbs – kątőm súna ðęne̋uda

• 4.6.2.2.1 As the attributive stative stands in the relation of an attributive adjective to its substantive, so an expression in the stative case may stand in the relation of a predicate adjective to a verb. Verbs signifying “to be”, “to become”, and other copulative verbs may have a predicate stative expressing any of the relations of the attributive possessive.
• 4.6.2.2.2 The Possessive Stative:

This law is the prince's.

i-þőro asurűs e̋sa:

i=þőr-o	asur-űs	e̋s-a
this=law-NOM.SG	prince-STA.SG	be-IND

• 4.6.2.2.3 The Metrical Stative:

The six-foot high tower has crumbled.

rűþ peda̋m þǫ̋ro mımı̨̋ka:

rűþ	ped-a̋m	þǫ̋r-o	mı~mı̨̋k-a
six	foot	STA.SG	tower-NOM.SG	PRF~crumble-IND

• 4.6.2.2.4 Partitive Stative:

My father was one of the hunted men.

mu-tą̋ta vędaþűm se̋m e-e̋sa:

mu=tą̋t-a	vęd-a-þ-űm	se̋m	e=e̋s-a
my=father-NOM.SG	hunt-IND-PPTCP-STA.PL	PST=be-IND

• 4.6.2.2.5 Any verb may take a partitive stative if its action affects the object only in part.

He sends the soldiers [i.e., all of them].

nu sőþlun mı̋þa:

n-u	sőþl-un	mı̋þ-a
3-NOM.SG	soldier-MOT.PL	send-IND

He sends some of the soldiers.

nu soþlűmɘ mı̋þa:

n-u	soþl-űm	mı̋þ-a
3-NOM.SG	soldier-STA.PL-EUPH	send-IND

• 4.6.2.2.6 The verbs ge̋ma, seize; da̋ba, pull; zı̋da, drag; and nę̋ȝa, lead, may have a direct object motive with a stative of the part seized, pulled, etc., the stative coming before the direct object motive.

The lion had seized him by the leg.

sı̋nᵹe lakős þum e-gıge̋ma:

sı̋nᵹ-e	lak-ős	þ-um	e-gı~ge̋m-a
lion-NOM.SG	leg-STA.SG	4-MOT.SG	PST=PRF~seize-IND

The two priestesses will lead the heifer by the horns.

d̬ő tove̋rus kidőm kase̋rem u-nę̋ȝa:

d̬ő	tove̋r-us	kid-őm	kase̋r-em	u=nę̋ȝ-a
two	priestess-NOM.PL	horn-STA.SG	heifer-MOT.SG	FUT=lead-IND

• 4.6.2.2.7 The verbs ą̋ɱa, hear; tűna, learn; pe̋ua, seek; and ı̋ga, request, may take a motive of the thing heard, etc., and a stative of the person from whom it was heard, learned, etc.

The people sought a ruling from the prince.

le̋uðu asurűs re̋kam e-pe̋ua:

le̋uð-u	asur-űs	re̋k-am	e=pe̋u-a
people-NOM.SG	prince-STA.SG	ruling-MOT.SG	PST=seek-IND

• 4.6.2.2.8 The verbs pę̋la, fill; þı̋a, stuff; and są̋a, sate; take the motive of the thing filled and the stative of the contents.

The harvesters filled the baskets with grain.

kőilus etenős k̬ę̋son e-pę̋la:

kőil-us	eten-ős	k̬ę̋s-on	e=pę̋l-a
harvester-NOM.PL	grain-STA.SG	basket-MOT.PL	PST=fill-IND

• 4.6.2.2.9 The verbs pa̋usa, release; še̋va, free; őȝa, remove; de̋usa, cease; műta, deprive; ka̋da, rob; and vǫ̋ura, steal, take the motive of the thing or person released and the stative of the thing released from.

The soldiers released the prisoners from their chains.

sőþlus þúm bukőm kőlaþun e-pą̋usa:

sőþl-us	þ-úm	buk-őm	kől-a-þ-un	e=pą̋us-a
soldier-NOM.SG	4-STA.PL	chain-STA.PL	imprison-IND-PPTCP-MOT.PL	PST=releave-IND

• 4.6.2.2.10 Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn, take a stative of the crime and a motive of the person.

The woman accused him of murder.

ǧe̋nu kąda̋s num e-ka̋ca:

ǧe̋n-u	kąd-a̋s	þ-um	e=ka̋c-a
woman-NOM.SG	murder-STA.SG	4-MOT.SG	PST=accuse-IND

• 4.6.2.2.11 The objective stative follows many adjectives derived from the verbs in paragraphs 4.6.2.2.8 and 4.6.2.2.9.

The basket was full of grain.

k̬ę̋so etenős pę̋lo e-vų̋a:

k̬ę̋s-o	eten-ős	pę̋lo-	e=vų̋-a
basket-NOM.SG	grain-STA.SG	full-NOM.SG	PST=be-IND

• 4.6.2.2.12 Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and equative degrees take the separative stative with the postposition sóma.

The cheetah runs faster than the ostrich.

nı̋be talresle̋' sóma ǫ́svi rę̋sa:

nı̋b-e	talresl-e̋-'	sóma	o~ós-vi	rę̋s-a
cheetah-NOM.SG	ostrich-STA.SG-ELIS	than	COMP~fast-ADV	run-IND

• 4.6.2.2.13 The indirect object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the stative with the postposition o.

Give this book to the student.

tunűs o i-lűvom dǫ̋e:

tun-űs	o	i=lűv-om	dǫ̋-e
student-STA.SG	to	this=book-MOT.SG	give-IMP

• 4.6.2.2.14 The person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage anything is or is done, is put in the stative with the postpositio éra.

Every good father labors for his children.

vı̋su vą̋du tą̋ta nu-ƶǫnaþűm éra dą̋ra:

vı̋su	vą̋du	tą̋t-a	nu=ƶǫnaþ-űm	éra	dą̋r-a
every	good	father-NOM.SG	his=child-STA.PL	for	work-IND

• 4.6.2.2.15 Alienable possession, i.e., possession of tangible things which one might somehow cease to own or possess, is expressed with the verb űda, possess.

I have (own, possess) three cows.

mu tı̋r ɱa̋ken űda:

m-u	tı̋r	ɱa̋k-en	űd-a
1-NOM.SG	three	cow-MOT.PL	own-IND

• 4.6.2.2.16 Inalienable possession, i.e., possession of those things which cannot exist apart from a possessor, e.g., body parts or kin, is expressed by making that which is possessed the subject of the sentence and the possessor the indirect object with the permanent existential verb e̋sa.

I have blue eyes.

kǫ̋xo t̬a̋los mús o e̋sa:

kǫ̋xo	t̬a̋l-os	m-ús	o	e̋s-a
blue	eye-NOM.PL	1-STA.SG	to	be-IND

• 4.6.2.2.17 A special case of alienable possession exists when the object possessed is not one’s own or has been acquired illegally by using the temporary existential verb vűa.

I have three cows (which I have stolen or which belong to my neighbor).

tı̋r ɱa̋kes mús o vų̋a:

tı̋r	ɱa̋k-es	m-ús	o	vų̋-a
three	cow-NOM.PL	1-STA.SG	to	be-IND

4.6.3 The Motive Case – ȝąne̋uda

• 4.6.3.1 The primary use of the motive case is to state a change in the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.
• 4.6.3.2 The motive case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that indicate a change of position.

The children ran out of the house.

cı̋cus ɱę̋som éha e-rę̋sa:

cı̋c-us	ɱę̋s-om	éha	e=rę̋s-a
child-NOM.PL	house-MOT.SG	out.of	PST=run-IND

• 4.6.3.3 The motive case marks the direct object of the action of a transitive verb.

We do these things.

ɱu' son kı̋a:

ɱ-u-'	s-on	kı̋-a
3-NOM.SG-ELIS	this-MOT.PL	do-IND

• 4.6.3.4 Any transitive verb whose meaning permits takes an object of kindred signification. This object repeats the meaning already contained in the verb. An example in English is "to sing a song." Some English verbs that this construction will replace would be "make, have, get" and "hold."

The seamstress took three stitches in the small tear.

ṡųlu lų̋do renðős éna tı̋r ṡų̋on e-ṡų̋a:

ṡųl-u	lų̋do	renð-ős	éna	tı̋r	ṡų̋-on	e=ṡų̋-a
seamstress-NOM.SG	small	tear-STA.SG	in	three	stitch-MOT.PL	PST=stitch-IND

• 4.6.3.5 The motive case marks, with verbs of motion, the particular ground over which the motion passes.

The children crossed the bridge.

cı̋cus þőlom e-ta̋ra:

cı̋c-us	þől-om	e=ta̋r-a
child-NOM.PL	bridge-MOT.SG	PST=cross-IND

• 4.6.3.6 The motive case marks substantives used as adverbial expressions of extent of time or space.

The house burned for two days.

ɱę̋so d̬ő a̋han e-a̋iða:

ɱę̋s-o	d̬ő	a̋h-an	e=a̋ið-a
house-NOM.SG	two	day-MOT.PL	PST=burn-IND

• 4.6.3.7 Verbs signifying to name, to choose, to appoint, to make, to think, take an object and its appositive in the motive case.

The prince appointed him general.

asűru num soþvę̋lum e-fę̋ta:

asűr-u	n-um	soþvę̋l-um	e=fę̋t-a
prince-NOM.SG	3-MOT.SG	general-MOT.SG	PST=appoint-IND

4.6.4 The Vocative Case – haɱne̋uda

• 4.6.4.1 The vocative case, accompanied, or not, by the vocative particle o, is used to mark direct address. The primary pitch shifts to the ultimate syllable.

General, your orders have been carried out.

o soþvęlű. (tús) ę̋vos þűkaþos ı̨̋la:

o	soþvęl-ű	t-ús	ę̋v-os	þűk-a-þ-os	i~ı̋l-a
VOC	general-VOC.SG	2-STA.SG	command-NOM.PL	carry.out-IND-PPTCP-NOM.PL	PRF~become-IND