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| | We ate yesterday. |
| | | {| |
| == pronunciation ==
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| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
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| === vowels ===
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| !
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| !'''Front'''
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| !'''Central'''
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| !'''Back'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Close'''
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| |{{IPA|i~i:}} '''(i)''' || || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Mid'''
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| |{{IPA|e~e:}} '''(e)''' || || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Open'''
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| | || {{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)''' ||
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| |}
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| ==== diphthongs ====
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| * Both of the falling [[wp:Diphthong|diphthongs]] as well as '''uai''' and '''yao''' only occur word finally.
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| ===== falling =====
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| *{{IPA|[aɪ~aɪ:]}} - '''ai'''
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| *{{IPA|[aʊ~aʊ:]}} - '''ao'''
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| ===== rising =====
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| *{{IPA|[wa~wa:]}} - '''ua'''
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| *{{IPA|[waɪ~waɪ:]}} - '''uai'''
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| *{{IPA|[ja~ja:]}} - '''ya'''
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| *{{IPA|[jaʊ~jaʊ:]}} - '''yao'''
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| *{{IPA|[je~je:]}} - '''ye'''
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| *{{IPA|[jo~jo:]}} - '''yo'''
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| === consonants ===
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| | |
| {| class="IPA wikitable"
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| ! rowspan="2"|
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| ! rowspan="2"|Labial
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| ! colspan="2"|Dental
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| ! rowspan="2"|Palatal
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| ! colspan="2"|Velar
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| ! rowspan="2"|Glottal
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| |-align=center
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| !<small>central</small>
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| !<small>lateral</small>
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| !<small>plain</small>
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| !<small>labial</small>
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| |-align=center
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| ! Nasal
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| | {{IPA|m}} '''(m)'''
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| | {{IPA|n}} '''(n)'''
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| | {{IPA|ɲ}} '''(ny)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !Plosive
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| | {{IPA|p~b}} '''(p)'''
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| | {{IPA|t~d}} '''(t)'''
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| | {{IPA|k~g}} '''(k)'''
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| | {{IPA|ʔ}} '''(')'''
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| |-align=center
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| !Fricative
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| | {{IPA|s}} '''(s)'''
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| | {{IPA|ʃ}} '''(s)'''
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| | {{IPA|h~ɦ}} '''(h)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !Affricate
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| | {{IPA|ts}} '''(ts)'''
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| | {{IPA|tɬ}} '''(tl)'''
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| | {{IPA|tʃ}} '''(ts)'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! Approximant
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| | {{IPA|l~r}} '''(l)'''
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| | {{IPA|j}} '''(y)'''
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| | {{IPA|w}} '''(u)'''
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| |}
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| ==== allophony ====
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| * /h/ > /ɦ/ when preceded or followed by a front vowel.
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| * The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above. It is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs that are not connected.
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| * <'''s'''> & <'''ts'''> are /ʃ/ and /tʃ/ respectively, unless immediately preceded or followed by one another, then <'''s'''> is always /s/ and <'''ts'''> is always /tʃ/.
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| * However, one could pronounce them either way (e.g. always /s/ & /ts/) and still be understood.
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| *Example:
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| :'''sitsa''' - /'si:.tʃa/ - warmth, heat / warm, hot / to heat up
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| :'''tsasu''' - /'tʃa:.su/ - cursive writing; having successive letters joined together
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| ==== phonotactics ====
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| * Kala phonotactics does not allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be [[wp:Labialization|labialized]] or [[wp:Palatalization|palatalized]].
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| ** There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of father, etc.
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| * Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword.
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| ==== syllable structure ====
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| * ''See also'': [[Kala/syllables|Syllables]]
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| *(N)(C)V/D(F)
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| **N - nasal; prenasal; /n/ or /m/
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| **C - consonant
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| **V - vowel
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| **D - diphthong
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| **F - final; coda
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|
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| *The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/; these only occur as a final codas to negate, pluralize or adverbialize verbs and nouns, respectively.
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| ==== stress ====
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| * In Kala stress falls on the [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|penultimate]] syllable with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|ultimate]].
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| ==== prenasalized consonants ====
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| * In Kala, almost every consonant can be [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalized]], but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized,while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases of [[wp:Syllabic_consonant|syllabic]] /n/ or /m/.
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| * '''mp''' /ᵐp~ᵐb/
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| :Example: '''mpaka''' /ˈᵐpa.ka/ - ''n'' - boundary / border / line
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| * '''nt''' /ⁿt~ⁿd/
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| :Example: '''ntama''' /ˈⁿta.ma/ - ''n'' - calf (a young cow or bull)
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| * '''nk''' /ᵑk~ᵑ/
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| :Example: '''nkapa''' /ˈᵑka.pa/ - ''n'' - alcohol / grog
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| == sentence structure ==
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| ''See also'': [[Kala Sentences]]
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| * Most sentences in [[Kala]] contain a verb phrase, typically denoting the occurrence of an action. A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modifiers.
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| * Most sentences also contain at least one noun phrase, typically denoting a person or thing. A noun phrase consists of a noun plus any modifiers.
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| * The two most important noun phrases are the subject and the object. Their exact meaning depends on the choice of verb, but
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| :loosely speaking, the subject is the person or thing that carries out the action, and the object is the person or thing that is directly affected by the action.
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| * [[Kala]] has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles).
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| === word order ===
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| * [[Kala]] phrase structure can be represented as follows:
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| : ''(temporal adverb) subject-(modifier) (particle) ((object)-(modifier)) verb-(modifier) (particle)''
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| : or, more simply '''SOV'''
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| == parts of speech ==
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| | |
| === verbs ===
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| * A typical verb denotes the occurrence or abandonment of an action (run, stop), a relationship (have, lose), or a state (stand, melt). Most verbs can be reused without change as a noun.
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| ==== tense ====
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;"
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| ! tense || suffix || gloss || example
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| |-
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| | remote past || '''-yeha''' || REM || '''nam inayeha'''<br>We ate a long while ago.
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| |-
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| | recent past || '''-yehi''' || REC || '''nam inayehi'''<br>We just ate.
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| |-
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| | past || '''-ye''' || PST || '''nam inaye'''<br>We ate.
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| |-
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| | present || ''not marked'' || || '''nam ina'''<br>We eat. / We are eating. / We do eat.
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| |-
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| | future || '''-tli''' || FUT || '''nam inatli'''<br>We will eat.
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| |-
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| | immediate future || '''-tlihi''' || IMM || '''nam inatlihi'''<br>We will eat soon/now.
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| |-
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| | distant future || '''-tliha''' || DIS || '''nam inatliha'''<br>We will eat a long while from now.
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| |}
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| * Kala does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. "I ate", "I used to eat", "I have eaten", "I had eaten").
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| * If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
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| :''Example'': We ate yesterday.
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| ::{|
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| |'''yomaye''' ||'''nam''' ||'''ina''' | | |'''yomaye''' ||'''nam''' ||'''ina''' |
| |- | | |- |
| |day-{{sc|pst}} ||1{{sc|pl}} ||eat | | |day-{{sc|pst}} ||1{{sc|pl}} ||eat |
| |} | | |} |
|
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| ==== modifiers ====
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|
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:600px;"
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| ! usage || suffix || from || example
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| |-
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| | ability, can || '''-pa''' || '''pala'''<br>to be able, can || '''na yalapa'''<br>I am able to go.
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| |-
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| | attempt, try || '''-pya''' || '''upya'''<br>to attempt; to try || '''na yalapya'''<br>I am trying to leave.
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| |-
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| | negation || '''-k''' || '''nke'''<br>no, not; negative || '''na yalak'''<br>I am not going.
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| |-
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| | beginning, initiate || '''-mu''' || '''mula'''<br>start; begin || '''na yalamu'''<br>I begin to go. / I'm starting to leave.
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| |-
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| | permission; allow || '''-myo''' || '''myonta'''<br>to allow; permit || '''na yalamyo'''<br>I am allowed to go.
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| |-
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| | should, ought to || '''-ne''' || '''neya'''<br>should, to ought to || '''na yalane'''<br>I should go.
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| |-
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| | need, necessity || '''-he''' || '''heya'''<br>to need; require || '''na yalahe'''<br>I need to go.
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| |-
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| | deintensify || '''-hi''' || '''ahi'''<br>small; little || '''na inahi'''<br>I am snacking.
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| |-
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| | appear, seem || '''-tse''' || '''tse'e'''<br>to seem; appearance || '''ha yalatse'''<br>He seems to be going.
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| |-
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| | want, desire || '''-ue''' || '''ueha'''<br>to want; desire || '''na yalaue'''<br>I want to go.
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| |-
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| | intention, volition || '''-ue''' || '''ueyo'''<br>to intend to || '''na yalaue'''<br>I intend to go.
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| |}
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|
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| === nouns ===
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|
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| * Nouns include [[wp:Pronoun|pronouns]], [[wp:Adjective|adjectives]] (nouns of quality), and [[wp:Determiner_(linguistics)|determiners]].
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|
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| ==== plurality ====
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| * A countable noun (or "count noun") can be modified by a number, and can accept the plural. Typical countable nouns represent objects that are clearly individual entities, such as houses, cats, and thoughts. For example:
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|
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:400px;"
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| ! || root || usage || example
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| |-
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| | '''-m''' || '''ma''' || general plural || '''tsakam'''<br>houses
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| |-
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| | '''-mha''' || '''ma''' + '''-ha''' || indefinite abundance || '''tsakamha'''<br>many/a lot houses
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| |-
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| | '''-mi''' || '''ma''' + '''-hi''' || indefinite insufficiency || '''tsakami'''<br>few houses
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| |-
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| | '''tli-''' || '''tatli''' || collective plural || '''tlikuma'''<br>sleuth of bears
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| |-
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| | '''-lo''' || '''ma''' || alternative to '''-m''' || '''yamalo'''<br>mountains
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| |}
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|
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| * When modified by a number, general plurals need not be marked. Example:
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| : '''tsaka ta'o''' - Two houses.
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|
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| ==== affect / degree ====
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|
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| * The diminutive is formed with '''-hi''', and the augmentative with '''-ha'''.
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| These are respectively realized as '''-ki''' and '''-ka''' when attached to a word that has a final syllable onset of /h/.
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| :Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
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| :Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''tsakahi''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion
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|
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| * These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
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| :Example : '''yanahi''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green
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|
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| ==== comparative / superlative ====
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|
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| * In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
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|
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| *Example
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| : '''tahaka'''
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| : bigger/biggest
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| ::'''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
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| :: house {{sc|3sg-poss}} {{sc|obj}} {{sc|1sg-poss}} big-{{sc|aug}}
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| :: ''His house is bigger than mine.''
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| *Example
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| : '''yanaha'''
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| : more yellow/most yellow
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| ::'''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
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| :: {{sc|obj}} flower.{{sc|pl}} {{sc|2sg-poss}} yellow-{{sc|aug}}
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| :: ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
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|
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| ==== gender ====
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| * Nouns do not normally indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, the suffixes '''-ta''' and '''-na''' are used:
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|
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| * '''uma''' - horse
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| : '''umata''' - a male horse, a stallion
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| : '''umana''' - a female horse, a mare
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|
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| ==== pronouns ====
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|
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| * [[Kala]] generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
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| * There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
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|
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;"
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| |-
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| ! || Nominative || Accusative || Possessive || Reflexive || Reciprocal
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| |-
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| | {{sc|1sg}}
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| || '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''nayo''' || '''na'i''' || ''' '''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|2sg}}
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| || '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''tayo''' || '''ta'i''' || ''' '''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|3sg}}
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| || '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''hayo''' || '''ha'i''' || ''' '''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|4sg}}
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| || '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tlayo''' || '''tla'i''' || ''' '''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|1pl}}
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| || '''nam''' || '''enam''' || '''namyo''' || '''nami''' || '''nanku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|1pl.excl}}
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| || '''na'am''' || '''ena'am''' || '''na'amyo''' || '''na'ami''' || '''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|2pl}}
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| || '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tami''' || '''tanku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|3pl}}
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| || '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kami''' || '''kanku'''
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| |-
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| | {{sc|4pl}}
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| || '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |-
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| |}
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|
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| *Example:
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| :{|
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| |'''eta'''||'''nahe'''||'''tsaka'''||'''hayo'''||'''a'''
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| |-
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| |{{sc|acc}}-2sg||inside||house||3sg-{{sc|poss}}||be
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| |}
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|
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| ==== correlative pronouns ====
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|
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:900px;"
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| ! || ''query'' || ''proximal'' || ''medial'' || ''distal'' || ''indefinite'' || ''negative'' || ''ambiguous'' || ''universal'' || ''generalized''
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| |-
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| | ''adjective'' || '''ote'''<br>which || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''iha'''<br>some || '''-k'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>any || '''kua'''<br>every || '''ote'''<br>whichever
| |
| |-
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| | ''person'' || '''ko'''<br>who || '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person (there) || '''hyako'''<br>someone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>anyone || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''teko'''<br>who(m)ever
| |
| |-
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| | ''thing'' || '''ke'''<br>what || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''hyano'''<br>something || '''nok'''<br>no thing || '''nola'''<br>anything || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''ote'''<br>whatever
| |
| |-
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| | ''time'' || '''ama'''<br>when || '''ima'''<br>now || '''uama'''<br>then || '''yeme'''<br>then (yon) || '''hyama'''<br>sometime || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>anytime || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''tema'''<br>whenever
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''place'' || '''mo'''<br>where || '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemo'''<br>there (away) || '''hyamo'''<br>somewhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>anywhere || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''temo'''<br>wherever
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''way'' || '''to'''<br>how || '''yoto'''<br>thus || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''hyato'''<br>somehow || '''tok'''<br>no way || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''heto'''<br>however
| |
| |-
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| | ''amount'' || '''uku'''<br>how many || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''ok'''<br>none || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''teku'''<br>however much/many
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''reason'' || '''nye'''<br>why || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''tenye'''<br>whyever
| |
| |}
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|
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| * To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and [[Kala_lexicon#ka|'''ka''']] is placed at the end. Example:
| |
|
| |
| * '''tam yala''' - ''{{sc|2pl}} go'' - You all are going.
| |
| : '''ama tam yala ka''' - ''time {{sc|2pl}} go {{sc|q}}'' - When are you all going?
| |
|
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| == compound sentences (subordinate clauses)==
| |
|
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| * While he was spearing mudbugs, he heard a dog singing.
| |
|
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| * If you want good beer, you should make your own beer.
| |
|
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| * While looking for tubers, I saw a nun in a clearing.
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|
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| * If you ate the toad (which you might have), you might get sick.
| |
|
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| * If you ate the toad (which you didn't), you would be dead.
| |
|
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| == adjectives ==
| |
|
| |
| * [[Kala]] uses verbs instead of having proper adjectives. For example;
| |
|
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| * '''na nyota'''
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| : {{sc|1sg}} thirst
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| : ''I am thirsty.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tla kiha'''
| |
| : {{sc|4sg}} be.tall
| |
| : ''It is tall.'' (lit: it talls)
| |
|
| |
| * '''nam ke punka ketla inaye'''
| |
| : {{sc|1pl}} {{sc|obj}} fruit be.red eat-{{sc|pst}}
| |
| : ''We ate the red fruit.''
| |
|
| |
| == adverbs ==
| |
|
| |
| * An adverbial precedes the clause it modifies.
| |
|
| |
| * ''I drank thirstily.''
| |
| :{|
| |
| |'''nyotan''' ||'''na''' ||'''inuye'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |thirst.{{sc|adv}} ||1{{sc|sg}} ||drink-{{sc|pst}}
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| * ''She will sleep quietly.''
| |
| :{|
| |
| |'''kyo'an''' ||'''ha''' ||'''mokutli'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |quiet.{{sc|adv}} ||3{{sc|sg}} ||sleep-{{sc|fut}}
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| == prepositions & conjunctions ==
| |
|
| |
| === prepositions ===
| |
|
| |
| * relational
| |
| # '''taye''' - pertaining to; regarding; about; a matter of
| |
| # '''te''' - of; from [{{sc|gen}}]
| |
| # '''mahe''' - approximately; around; close to
| |
| # '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by; furnished with]; together
| |
| # '''ma'ak''' - without; with no ...
| |
| # '''nya''' - for [benefit; purpose of], [{{sc|ben}}]; by [actor; author]
| |
| # '''atse''' - opposite; the other side
| |
|
| |
| * spatial
| |
| # '''pue''' - back; behind; rear
| |
| # '''tahe''' - below; under; beneath; underneath
| |
| # '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
| |
| # '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
| |
| # '''maye''' - between; among
| |
| # '''ma'e''' - before; ahead of; in front of
| |
| # '''nahe''' - into; within; in [located inside of]
| |
| # '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
| |
| # '''hue''' - at [in the same location as]
| |
| # '''tsa'e''' - across ; through; beyond; past
| |
| # '''atse''' - across; opposite; the other side
| |
| # '''enye''' - outside of; exterior to
| |
| # '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
| |
| # '''ua'e''' - above; over [space]
| |
| # '''yane''' - beside; by; next to; near; close to
| |
|
| |
| * temporal
| |
| # '''pue''' - afterwards; after; later
| |
| # '''ma'e''' - before; earlier
| |
| # '''naye''' - during; hence
| |
| # '''tsaye''' - since; until
| |
|
| |
| === conjunctions ===
| |
|
| |
| * '''ma''' - and; also; too; as well
| |
| * '''me''' - but, however, and not
| |
| * '''ua''' - or
| |
| * ''' ''' - so, therefore
| |
| * '''ke''' - that, whether
| |
| * '''ama''' - when (temporal)
| |
| * '''naye''' - while, during, as
| |
| * '''iya''' - if (conditional)
| |
| * '''nye''' - because, since
| |
| * ''' ''' - in order that (purpose)
| |
| * ''' ''' - even when, even if, albeit, still
| |
| * ''' ''' - anyway, although, on the other hand
| |
|
| |
| == relative clauses ==
| |
|
| |
| * ''He broke the bone which I gave him.''
| |
| : '''ha ke ueso na'eha yetaye tanyaye'''
| |
| : 3{{sc|sg}} {{sc|p}} bone 1{{sc|sg}}-{{sc|a.p}}-3{{sc|sg}} give-{{sc|pst}} break-{{sc|pst}}
| |
|
| |
| * ''I saw the car that he bought.''
| |
| : '''na ke nkale ha tsumpaye anyaye'''
| |
| : 1{{sc|sg}} {{sc|p}} car 3{{sc|sg}} buy-{{sc|pst}} see-{{sc|pst}}
| |
|
| |
| == interjections ==
| |
|
| |
| * '''a''' - yes
| |
| * '''ak''' - no
| |
| ** '''nka''' - no! {{sc|emp.neg}}
| |
| * '''yata''' - hello / goodbye
| |
| ** '''hala''' - hey, hi (on the phone)
| |
| * '''tsepa''' - please
| |
| * '''nyasa''' - thank you
| |
| * '''hako''' - you're welcome
| |
| * '''niha''' - fine, OK, great
| |
|
| |
| === cursing ===
| |
|
| |
| # '''katse''' - epithet; similar to "bastard", "bitch" or "asshole."
| |
| # '''kuna''' - shit (''lit'': to defecate)
| |
| # '''kyosa''' - fornicate; have sex
| |
| # '''nanka''' - general invective; "Damn it!"
| |
| # '''tsaya''' (-'''tsa''') - general invective; "Fuck!" or "Shit!"
| |
|
| |
| * '''eta kuna'''
| |
| : {{sc|p}}.2{{sc|sg}} shit
| |
| : ''You are shat. / You are shit.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''kya ta'i kyosa'''
| |
| : {{sc|imp}} 2{{sc|sg}}.{{sc|refl}} fornicate
| |
| : ''Fuck yourself!''
| |
|
| |
| * '''onatsa tayo'''
| |
| : mother.damned 2{{sc|sg}}.{{sc|poss}}
| |
| : ''mother fucker'' / ''your damned mother''
| |
|
| |
| == numbers ==
| |
|
| |
| === cardinal numbers ===
| |
|
| |
| *'''e'o''' - zero; null
| |
| *'''na'o''' - one
| |
| *'''ta'o''' - two
| |
| *'''ha'o''' - three
| |
| *'''ma'o''' - four
| |
| *'''ya'o''' - five
| |
| *'''tsa'o''' - six
| |
| *'''ka'o''' - seven
| |
| *'''pa'o''' - eight
| |
| *'''sa'o''' - nine
| |
| *'''ue'o''' - ten
| |
| -
| |
| *'''nye'o''' - (one) hundred; 10<sup>2</sup>
| |
| *'''nya'o''' - five hundred
| |
| *'''tle'o''' - (one) thousand; 10<sup>3</sup>
| |
| *'''mue'o''' - ten thousand; 10<sup>4</sup>
| |
| *'''kye'o''' - (one) hundred thousand; 10<sup>5</sup>
| |
| *'''nte'o''' - (one) million; 10<sup>6</sup>
| |
| *'''hue'o''' - (one) billion; 10<sup>9</sup>
| |
|
| |
| === higher numbers ===
| |
|
| |
| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
| |
| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
| |
| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
| |
| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') | '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
| |
| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
| |
|
| |
| == expressions of time ==
| |
|
| |
| * Tense markers are often replaced by time expressions. Here are a few of the more common ones:
| |
|
| |
| * '''iyoma''' - today
| |
| * '''iyohua''' - tonight
| |
| * '''yomaye''' - yesterday
| |
| * '''yomatli''' - tomorrow
| |
| * '''yomua''' - morning
| |
| * '''puama''' - evening
| |
| * '''yomuatli''' - tomorrow morning
| |
| * '''yohuaye''' - last night
| |
| * '''sayo''' - month
| |
| * '''anyo''' - year
| |
| * '''anyotlipua''' - end of next year
| |
| * '''anyoye ue'o''' - ten years ago
| |
| * '''sayotli ta'o''' - in two months
| |
|
| |
| == ordering of phrases ==
| |
|
| |
| * I will eat pig.
| |
| * It is pig that I will eat.
| |
| * He broke the bone.
| |
| * The bone broke/was broken.
| |
| * I was bitten.
| |
| * He wants to be beaten.
| |
| * The broken bone.
| |
| * I gave the fruit to the child.
| |
| * I gave (it) to the child.
| |
| * I gave the fruit.
| |
| * The fruit was given to the child.
| |
| * Give (me) the big bone now.
| |
|
| |
| == causative constructions ==
| |
|
| |
| * Constructions with '''-mya''' (from [[Kala_lexicon#ma|'''muya''']]), to do, make:
| |
|
| |
| * I am making the beer.
| |
| * I am keeping him from eating.
| |
| * I will kill him.
| |
| * What did you kill?
| |
|
| |
| * Note: In English, verbs can be transitive or intransitive, as in "The house burned" or "I burned the house". In Kala, a causative construction is used:
| |
|
| |
| * The house is burning.
| |
| * I am burning the house.
| |
|
| |
| == compounding ==
| |
|
| |
| * Kala compounding is right-branching. Kala also reduces redundant syllables.
| |
|
| |
| * '''nyepana''' - raincloud
| |
| # '''nyepa''' - cloud
| |
| # '''pana''' - rain
| |
|
| |
| * '''ilamo''' - airport
| |
| # '''ila''' - fly; hover
| |
| # '''mo''' - place; locale
| |
|
| |
| == creating nouns from verbs ==
| |
|
| |
| * A noun can be created from a verb root, as with [[Kala_lexicon#a|'''ina''']], to eat:
| |
|
| |
| * '''inako''' - eater
| |
| * '''inano''' - food, thing eaten
| |
| * '''inama''' - eating-time
| |
| * '''inamo''' - eating-place
| |
| * '''inamya''' - act of eating
| |
| * '''inanyoo''' - eating instrument
| |
| * '''inape''' - portion of food, meal
| |
| * '''inato''' - manner of eating
| |
