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| == ..... '''kolape'''== | | == ..... Copula's== |
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| This is a complement clause construction. In English there are 7 types of complement clauses, in '''béu''' there are only 3.
| | The word copula comes from the Latin word "copulare" meaning "to tie", so a copula is a verb that ties. |
| | In '''béu'''(as in other languages) they differ from normal verbs in that they are quite irregular. |
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| A complement clause is call a '''kolape''' in '''béu'''. The three types are briefly summarised below and then each of the types is discussed in more detail.
| | Also in '''béu''' a copula clause '''taiviza''' requires a specific word order and the '''s''' (the ergative case) is never suffixed to any noun, as normally happens when a verb is associated with two nouns. |
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| 1) I remembered writing the book ... this conveys that the whole process of locking the door is going thru the speakers mind ... '''???ari pá kludau toili'''
| | === ... '''sàu'''=== |
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| The '''béu''' form above looks similar to the English "I remembered to write the book". However this is NOT the meaning.
| | '''sàu''' is the '''béu''' main copula and is the copula of state. It is the equivalent of "to be" in English, which has such forms as "be", "is", "was", "were" and "are". |
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| To say "I remembered to write the book" in '''béu''' you would say '''???ari tá toili (rà) kludu''' ... see the section about participles.
| | The table below echoes the second table given in "The R-form of the verb" |
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| 2) I thought that I wrote the book ... takes the same form in '''béu''' ... '''olgari tá kludari toili'''
| | In three rows (the second and the two at the end) the copula includes the cenʔo. In the table the '''a''' of the first person singular is given. In rows 1 and 3 the copula does not include the cenʔo (so obviously when these form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedant word) |
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| 3) He asked me whether I had written the book ??? ... ask'''ori (pavi) tavoi kludari toili'''
| | The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use '''rà''' or '''ká''' followed by the '''béu''' equivalent of "now" or "at the moment". |
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| ==='''kolape jù'''===
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| In '''béu''' the word order is usually free. This is not true in a '''kalope jù'''
| | [[Image:TW_118.png]] |
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| '''jono<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = John was bad
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| '''(pà solbe moze pona sacowe)<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = my drinking the cold water quickly was bad
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| Notice that '''pà solbe moze pona sacowe''' behaves as one element. It has the same function as "John" in the previous example.
| | Actually '''rà''' is usually dropped completely. |
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| The word order inside '''kolape jù''' is fixed. It must be S V or A V O for a transitive clause (any other peripheral arguments are stuck on at the end).
| | It is mostly used for emphasis; like when you are refuting a claim |
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| Also notice that the ergative marker '''-s''' which is usually attached to the A argument is dropped. Actually for pronouns it is not just the dropping of the '''-s''', but a change of tone also, so this form is identical to the O form of the pronoun.
| | Person A) ... '''gí ká moltai''' = You aren't a doctor |
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| The '''kolape''' above, if expressed as a main clause would be.
| | Person b) ... '''pá rà moltai''' = I am a doctor |
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| '''(pás) solbari saco<sup>*</sup> moze pona''' = I drank the cold water quickly | | Another situation where '''rà''' tends to be used is when either the subject or the copula complement are longish trains of words. For example ... |
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| Other examples ;-
| | '''solboi alkyo ʔá dori rà sawoi''' = Those alcoholic drinks that she made are delicious. |
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| '''wàr solbe''' (I want to drink) is another example. ('''wò''' = to want)
| | The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb. |
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| '''klori jono timpa jene''' (he saw John hitting Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
| | === ... '''láu'''=== |
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| '''kolape jù?''' can be considered as a noun phrase and the fixed ordering of elements can be seen as a reflextion of the strict order of elements in a normal noun phrase | | '''láu''' is the '''béu''' is the copula of change of state. It is the equivalent of "become" in English. |
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| Subject<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> Object<sub>3</sub>(Peripheral arguments<sub>4</sub> x n)
| | Again the table below echoes the table given in "The R-form of the verb" |
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| 1) The "A" argument or the "S" argument.
| | In four rows (the second, third and the two at the end) the copula includes the cenʔo. In the table the '''a''' of the first person singular is given. In the first row the copula does not include the cenʔo (so obviously when this form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedant word) |
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| 2) The verb.
| | The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use '''rà''' or '''ká''' followed by the '''béu''' equivalent of "now" or "at the moment". |
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| 3) The "O" argument, which would of course be non-existent in an intransitive clause.
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| 4) Adverbs and everything else.
| | [[Image:TW_119.png]] |
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| A '''gomia''' such as '''solbe''' can be regarded as a proper noun<sup>**</sup> and can be the head of a '''cwidauza''' (see a previous section)
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| or it can be the head of a '''kalope jù'''. But these two constructions are always distinct. For example you couldn't append a determiner to a '''kalope jù''' ... (or could you ??)
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| <sup>*</sup> in a main clause the adverb can appear anywhere if suffixed with '''-we'''. But in '''kalope jù''' the adverb must come after the Subject, Verb and Object.
| | As you can see this copula is more regular than the main copula. |
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| <sup>**</sup> A '''gomia''' never forms a plural or takes personal infixes in the way a normal noun does. Also it only takes a very reduced subset of '''pilana''', so a '''gomia''' can be regarded as an entity half way between nounhood and verb hood. For that reason I consider '''gomia''' as a part of speech, standing alongside "noun" and "verb".
| | The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb. |
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| ==='''kolape tá'''===
| | '''láu hauʔe''' = to become beautiful OR to become a beautiful woman |
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| In this form the full verb<sup>*</sup> is used, not the '''gomia'''. Also we have a special complementiser particle '''tá''' which comes at the head of the complement clause.
| | === ... The copula of existence === |
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| '''wàr tá jonos timporu jene''' = I want John to hit Jane | | Some languages have a verb to indicate that something exists. '''twái''' |
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| '''klori tá jonos timpori jene''' (he saw that John hit Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
| | This usually introduces a new protagonist in a narrative. The new protagonist is by definition, indefinite. For example ... |
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| <sup>*</sup>Well not quite the full form. Evidentials are never expressed.
| | '''twor glá gáu ʔaiho''' = There was an old and ugly woman |
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| ==='''kolape tói'''===
| | Often it is used with a phrase of location. |
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| This is equivalent to English word "whether".
| | '''nambopi twuru aiba glabua''' = There will be three people in the house .... 3 people are in the house ??? |
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| | There is no word that corresponds to "have". The usual way to say "I have a coat" ... |
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| | '''pán twor kaunu''' = "at me exists a coat" |
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| '''sa''' ''RAF'' '''kalme''' ''Luftwaffe'' '''kyori''' ''Hitler'' '''olga tena''' => The RAF's destruction of the Luftwaffe, made Hitler think again. ... here a '''gomiaza''' acts as the A-argument.
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| | ?????????????????? |
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| | '''há''' = place |
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| <sup>*</sup>in the combinations where '''sacowe''' immediately followed '''solbe''' it is merely '''saco'''
| | '''dí''' = this |
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| Things to think about
| | '''dè''' = that |
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| what is a '''gomiaza'''
| | While you sometimes come across the '''há dí''' the word '''hái''' is the usual way to express "here". |
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| Can this be used for a causative construction ??
| | In a similar manner you sometimes come across the '''há dè''' the word '''ade'''<sup>*</sup> is the usual way to express "there". |
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| == ..... Some linguistic terms in béu==
| | <sup>*</sup>This word is an exception to the rule that inside a word and between vowels, '''d''' can be either pronounced as "d" or "ð". In '''ade''' the '''d''' is always pronounced "ð". |
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| By the way, while we are at it (defining linguistic terms)
| | There is a house = A house exists = '''ade (rà) nambo''' |
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| '''nandau''' = word
| | This is patterned on the more general locative construction. |
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| '''semo''' = a clause ... from the verb "to say" '''sema'''
| | In the apple tree is a beehive ???? |
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| '''semoza''' = a sentence
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| '''jaudauza''' = a verb phrase or verb complex (commonly called a "predicate" by linguists). This is the verb together with the five modals. | | '''ade pona paye''' = "I feel cold" ... maybe against expectations ... no reason to think that other people would be cold. |
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| '''feŋgi''' = a particle ... given above | | '''ʃi pona''' = "It is cold" ... everybody should feel cold |
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| '''plofa''' = a participle (P) ... there are 3 participles in béu
| | == ..... The verb complex or verb phrase == |
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| '''ʔasemo''' = a relative clause | | Also often called the predicate. Called the '''jaudauza''' in '''béu''' |
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| '''kalope''' = a complement clause. There are three types of these ... '''kalope jù''', '''kalope tà''' and '''kalope tavoi'''
| | The predicate is made up of ... |
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| A '''kalope jù''' is a '''gomiaza''' if it is more than one word long, if only one word long it is simply a '''gomia'''
| | 1) one of two particles that show likelihood which are optional. |
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| A '''gomiaza''' can comprise of subject ... gomia ... object ... adverb ... other peripheral terms
| | In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''mazebai'''. The '''mazebai''' are a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles) |
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| The term '''gomuaza''' is not used. You would use the word '''semo''' meaning clause.
| | 2) one of five particles that show modality. These are also optional. |
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| '''taifi''' (that which is to be tied ??? check participles) = copular subject | | In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''seŋgebai'''. The '''seŋgebai''' are a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles) |
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| '''taifo''' = copular complement | | 3) a '''gomua''' (a full verb) |
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| '''taifau''' = to tie | | === ... '''mazebai''' === |
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| '''taifana''' = a copula
| | These appear first in the predicate. |
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| == ..... The parts of speech of béu==
| | These particles show the probability of the verb occurring. |
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| "Parts of speech" is linguistic jargon, which is referring to the different "classes" of words a language might have. For example "nouns", "verbs", etc. etc.
| | 1) '''màs solbori''' = maybe he drank |
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| In fact nouns (N), verbs (V) and adjectives (A) are the big three, and after some debate over the last 30 years, it has been agreed that every language has these three word classes.
| | 2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank |
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| In '''béu''' a noun is called '''cwidau''' ('''cwì''' meaning a physical object), a verb is called '''jaudau''' ('''jàu''' meaning "to move"), and an adjective is called '''saidau''' ('''sái''' meaning "a colour").
| | You could say that the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty |
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| There are other classes of words in '''béu''' as there are in other languages. '''béu''' has adverbs ('''wedau''') but these don't really come into their own, being more a form an adjective takes in certain situations. Also a lot of words that are called adverbs in English are called particles ('''feŋgia''') (F) in '''béu'''. Particles are a type of hold-all category for a word that doesn't fit into any of the other classes. Under the term "particle" many subclasses can be defined, and in fact some subclasses have a class membership of one. If you come across a word that can not easily be equated with any of the major word classes ... well then you probably have a '''feŋgi'''.
| | === ... '''seŋgebai''' === |
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| It is necessary to talk about another part of speech which i will refer to by the '''béu''' term '''gomia'''<sup>*</sup> (G). It is a form of the verb which is called the "infinitive" in the Western linguistic tradition.
| | These appear next in the predicate. |
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| <sup>*</sup> '''goma''' means "tail" and '''gomia''' means "tail-less". The reason for this is that a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs commonly do, has person, number, tense, aspect and evidentiality expressed on the verb as series of suffixes, hence the "tail". These items are not expressed on the '''gomia'''.
| | These particles correspond to what is called the "modal" words in English. The five '''seŋgeba''' are ... |
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| In contradistinction to '''gomia''' we have '''gomua''' ('''jaudau gomua''' to give the concept its full title) which is a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs typically do.
| | 1) '''sú''' which codes for strong obligation or duty. It is equivalent to "should" in English. In English certain instances of the word "must" also carries this meaning. |
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| For example '''solbarin''' (I drank, so they say) is a '''gomua'''.
| | 2) '''seŋga''' which codes for weak obligation. It is equivalent to "ought to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "ought to" is dying out, and "should" is coding weak obligation also) |
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| '''solbarin''' is built up from the '''gomia''' "'''solbe'''" ... first you delete the final vowel => then you add "'''a'''" meaning first person singular subject => then you add "'''r'''" meaning that the mood is indicative (as opposed to imperative or subjunctive) => then you add "'''i'''" meaning simple past tense => and finally you add "'''n'''" which is an evidential, meaning that the utterance is based on what other people have said. | | 3) '''alfa''' which codes for ability. It is equivalent to "can" in English. As in English it means that subject has the strength or the skill to perform the action. Also as in English it codes for possibilities/situations which are not dependent on the subject. For example ... '''udua alfa solbur''' => "the camels can drink" in the context of "the caravan finally reached Farafra Oasis" |
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| '''solbarin''' is '''gomua pomo''' or "a full tail verb". | | 4) '''hempi''' which codes for permission. It is equivalent to "may" or "to be allowed to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "may" is dying out, and "can" is coding for permission also) |
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| The three evidential markers are all optional, so they can quite easily be dropped. '''solbari''' (I drank) is what is called '''gomua yàu''' or "a long tail verb".
| | 5) '''hentai''' means knowledge. It is equivalent to "know how to" in English. (Note ... in English certain instances of the word "can" also carries this meaning) |
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| '''solbis''' (you lot drink) and '''solbon''' (let him drink) are '''gomua wái''' or "a short tail verbs" ... the first is an example of the imperative and the second is an example of the subjunctive (more linguistic jargon ... sorry).
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| | The form that these '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb take appears strange. Where as, logically, you would expect the suffixes for person, number, tense, aspect and evidential to be attached to the '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb maybe in its infinitive form, the '''seŋgeba''' do not change their form and the suffixes appear on the main verb as normal. This is one oddity that marks the '''seŋgeba''' off as a separate word class.<sup>*</sup> |
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| '''solbai''' is called an part verb ???
| | Some examples ... |
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| == ..... The conditional==
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| '''iba''' = condition, stipulation | | a) '''sú -er''' => you should visit your brother |
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| '''ibla''' = if .... occasionally the form '''ibala''' is used. When the longer form is used, it is showing that the speaker has a lot of doubt as to whether the eventuality will actually come to pass. | | b) '''sú -eri''' => you should have visited your brother |
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| '''jú''' = then ... this is a conjunction, indicating that what follows follows on from what is before. That is, it shows that they are connected, part of the same train of thought or chain of actions. | | c) '''sú hamperka''' animals => you should not feed the animals |
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| The béu form for the conditional is .... '''ibla xxx xxx xxx jú xxx xxx xxx'''
| | d) '''sú hamperki''' animals => you shouldn't have fed the animals |
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| Usually the tense of the verbs in the above two clauses is the future tense, but it does not have to be. Sometimes you can get quite complicated conditional linkages.
| | Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza súa''' |
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| The irrealis form of the verb is also quite common in the conditional construction. For example ....
| | 2) |
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| "If you had come to London, we would have met"
| | a) '''seŋga humper''' little => you ought to eat a little |
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| ==Verb chains== | | b) '''seŋga humperi''' little => you ought to have eaten a little |
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| '''bawas bura nambo laulus halfus''' => The men go home singing and laughing | | c) '''seŋga solberka''' brandy => you ought to not drink brandy |
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| '''bawas bura nambo laulus lauloi?? halfus''' => The men go home singing songs and laughing | | d) '''seŋga solberki''' brandy => you ought to have not drunk that brandy |
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| '''bawas bura nambo laulus halfus jonoWo''' => The men go home singing and laughing about John | | Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza seŋgua''' |
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| This is used when things happen at the same time and the subject of all the verbs is the same. Notice that the '''us'''-forms can come after the '''r'''-form verb.
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| It is not really important which verb comes first, perhaps the one considered the most relevant/important should come first.
| | a) '''fà -or''' => he can swim across the river |
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| The three verbs above sort of amalgamate into a single verb. The actions should be considered a single event.
| | b) '''fà-ori''' => he could swim across the river |
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| In the examples above the three constituent verbs of the verb chain happen at the same time but this is not always the case. In the example below the constituent verbs happen one after the other.
| | c) '''fà solborka''' => he can stop drinking |
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| '''awes hufu bús kyús jonoye''' (take sheep go give John) = Take the sheep and give it to John. | | d) '''fà solborki''' => he could stop drinking |
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| Word building when it comes to verbs ....
| | Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza fùa''' |
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| ’‘béu’’’ has verb “chaining”. In verb “chaining” the first verb has its full complememt of person, tense/aspect and evidentuality. However all verbs that follow the initial verb have the ending ‘’’-us’’’. For example ......
| | 4) |
| '''gàu''' = to descend, '''jompai''' = to rub …. in verb chains, the person, tense/aspect and evidentuality must be the same on every verb, but the idea of transitivity is fluid ???
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| For example ... '''jompara shi gus''' = "I am rubbing it down", '''jompai''' = "a rubbing", '''gàu''' = "a desent", '''gujompai''' = erosion (word building ??)
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| You would say "The rain erodes the mountain-range" rather than "The rain rubs the mountain-range down" because the "real" meaning of "rub" involves something solid against a something rigid.
| | a) '''hempi bor festa''' => "she may go to the party" or "she can go to the party" or "she is allowed to go to the party" |
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| | b) '''hempi bori festa''' => she was allowed to go to the party |
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| Minor Verb, these usually are add-ons.
| | c) '''hempi borka''' school => he is allowed to stop attending school |
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| The small verbs constitute a subset of verbs. They always follow the '''r'''-form verbs.
| | d) '''hempi bori''' school => he was allowed to stop attending school |
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| It is very common to have the following verbs in their ai-form.
| | Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hempua''' |
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| '''blià''' = to stay
| | 5) |
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| '''bé''' = to go | | a) '''hentai bamor''' car => "she can drive a car" or "she knows how to drive a car" |
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| '''kò''' = to come | | b) '''hentai bamori''' car => she knew how to drive a car |
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| = to ascend | | c) '''hentai boikorka''' car => He has the ability not to crash the car |
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| = to descend | | d) '''hentai boikorki''' car => He had the ability not to crash the car |
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| = to return
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| The most common use for this is when you want to fit another action, inside the act of walking. For example "I was walking to school when it started to rain". Occasionally this form is used when you simply want to emphasis that the action took a long time (well in '''béu''' anyway, not so much in English). For example "This morning I was walking 2 hours to school (because I sprained my ankle)".
| | Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hentua''' |
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| '''láu''' = to become | | <sup>*</sup>Two other oddities also marks off the '''seŋgeba''' as a separate word class. These are ... |
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| I painted the house red = paint'''ari nambo láu hìa'''
| | 1) When you want to question a '''jaudauza''' containing a '''seŋgeba''' you change the position of the main verb and the '''seŋgeba'''. For example ... |
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| I painted the house naked = paint'''ari nambo sàu''' naked .... I painted the house naked
| | ''' bor hempi festa''' => "may she go to the party" ... shades of English here. |
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| '''solboi ʔá dori rà sawoi''' = Those drinks that she made are delicious | | 2) All 5 '''seŋgeba''' can be negativized by deleting the final vowel and adding '''aiya'''. For example ... |
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| '''solboi ʔá dori láu sawoi''' are all finished = Those drinks that she made delicious are all gone ???? | | '''faiya -or''' ??? => he can't swim across the river |
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| Note we need to use '''lái''' or sometime we would get confusion d/t the '''béu''' habit of dropping the copula.
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| = to come
| | Note ... sometimes the negative marker on the '''seŋgeba''' can occur along with the normal negative marker on the main verb to give an emphatic positive. Sometimes it produces a quirky effect. For example ... |
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| = to go | | '''jenes faiya humpor cokolate''' => Jane can't eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability to eat chocolates) ... for example she is a diabetic and can not eat anything sweet. |
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| = to rise ... '''sái''' : to raise ... '''slái'''
| | '''jenes fa humporka cokolate''' => Jane can '''not''' eat chocolates (Jane have the ability not to eat chocolates)... meaning she has the willpower to resist them. |
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| = to descend ... '''gàu''' : to lower ... '''glàu'''
| | '''jenes faiya humporka cokolate''' => Jane can not not eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability, not to eat chocolates) ... meaning she can't resist them. |
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| = to enter ... '''poi''' : to put in ... '''ploi'''
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| = to go out
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| = to follow
| | There are 5 nouns that correspond to the 5 '''seŋgeba''' |
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| = to cross | | '''anzu''' = duty |
|
| |
|
| = to go through | | '''seŋgo''' = obligation |
|
| |
|
| = to pass | | '''alfa''' = ability |
|
| |
|
| = to return | | '''hempo''' = permission or leave |
|
| |
|
| = to do something in a haphazard manner, to do something in an unsatisfactory manner | | '''hento''' = knowledge |
|
| |
|
| = to scatter about
| | --------------------- |
| | Note on English usuage (in fact all the Germanic languages) ... the way English handles negating modal words is a confusing. Consider "She can not talk". Since the modal is negated by putting "not" after it and the main verb is negated by putting "not" in front of it, this could either mean ... |
|
| |
|
| = to hurry
| | a) She doesn't have the ability to talk |
|
| |
|
| = to do accidentally ??
| | or |
|
| |
|
| The above are often stuck on the end of an utterance ... like a sort of afterthought. They give the utterance a bit more clarity ... a bit more resolution.
| | b) She has the ability to not talk |
|
| |
|
| See what Dixon has in Dyirbal.
| | Note only when the meaning is a) can the proposition be contracted to "she can't talk". In fact, when the meaning is b), usually extra emphasis would be put on the "not". a) is the usual interpretation of "She can not talk" and if you wanted to express b) you would rephrase it to "She can keep silent". This rephrasing is quite often necessary in English when you have a modal and a negative main verb to express. |
|
| |
|
| '''au'''-form only with '''r'''-form or can also go with '''n'''-form, etc. etc. | | === ... '''wepua''' === |
|
| |
|
| You can add as many verbs as you want. The added verbs are understood to have the same protagonists, '''gwomai''' and evidentiality as the '''r'''-form verb.
| | We have already mentioned the two '''mazeba''' at the beginning of this section. |
|
| |
|
| pass'''orla''' sing'''au''' kite '''fly'''au = He is passing by singing and flying a kite
| | Actually there is another particle that occurs in the same slot as the '''mazeba''' and it also codes for likelihood. This is '''wepua''' and it constitutes a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles) all by itself. |
|
| |
|
| WHAT ABOUT SEPERATE OBJECTS ON THE TWO VERBS ?
| | 1) '''más solbori''' = maybe he drank |
|
| |
|
| WHEN WE INTRODUCE "ALONG" (FOR EXAMPLE) WE ARE INTRODUCING A NEW OBJECT IN THE CLAUSE ???
| | 2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank |
|
| |
|
| -----------------------------
| | 3) '''wepua solbori''' = he must have drank |
|
| |
|
| The causative construction
| | You could say that while the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty, the third shows 100% certainty. |
|
| |
|
| '''(pàs) dari jono dono''' = I made john walk | | 3) Indicates that some "evidence" or "background information" exists to allow the speaker to assert what he is saying. It also carries the meaning "there is no other conclusion given the evidence".This obviously has some functional similarities to the '''-s''' evidential. However the '''-s''' evidential carries less than 100 % certainty ... |
|
| |
|
| '''(pàs) dari jono timpa jene''' = I made John hit Jane ... in this sort of construction, '''jono''', '''timpa''' and '''jene''' must be contiguous and '''jono''' should be to the left of '''jene'''. | | '''solboris''' = I guess/suppose he drunk |
|
| |
|
| ==To give and to receive ==
| | '''wepua''' never appears in front of the first two '''seŋgebai'''. This is the difference between '''wepua''' and the '''mazebai'''. |
|
| |
|
| '''kyé''' = "to give" or "to allow" or "to let". | | The word '''wepua''' is derived from '''pè''' meaning "to need". '''pòi''' means necessities.'''wepua''' can be thought of as meaning something like "being necessary" or "of necessity". |
|
| |
|
| '''bwò''' = "to receive" or "to get" or "to undergo"
| | === ... 4 suffixes -u, -va, -inda, -wan === |
|
| |
|
| A central meaning of these two words are demonstrated in the two examples below.
| | These all form adjectives. The first 2 might have some connection with the '''seŋgeba'''. |
|
| |
|
| 1) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> kyori toili<sub>O</sub> jeneye''' = John gave a book to Jane"
| | i.e. '''solbe''' = to drink |
|
| |
|
| Note that (as with all béu main clauses) the arguments can be in any order.
| | '''moze''' = water |
|
| |
|
| 2) '''jene<sub>A</sub> bwori toili<sub>O</sub>''' ('''jonofi''') = Jane got a book (from John)
| | '''moze solbu''' = the water which must be drunk |
|
| |
|
| O.K. the above is the usage normal usage of '''kyé''' and '''bwò'''. They sort of describe the same action but from two different perspectives.
| | '''moze solbeva''' = drinkable water |
|
| |
|
| When a destination comes immediately after the verb '''bé''' "to go" the '''pilana''' '''-ye''' is always dropped.
| | There is also another suffix, but this one can be said to be unrelated to "like" |
|
| |
|
| In a similar manner when a origin comes immediately after the verb '''kò''' "to come" the '''pilana''' '''-fi''' is never dropped.
| | '''moze solbinda''' = water worth drinking |
|
| |
|
| But as well as with their central roll, these two words have other uses as well.
| | '''bawa solbewan''' = men inclined to drink |
|
| |
|
| ===The reciprocal construction===
| | The last one also makes adjectives from other adjectives. i.e. |
|
| |
|
| The reciprocal particle can be said to historically come from both '''kyé''' and '''bwò'''.
| | '''hìa''' = red |
|
| |
|
| '''jono jene timpuri kyebwo''' = "John and Jane hit each other" = "John and Jane hit one and other" | | '''hiawan''' = reddish |
|
| |
|
| '''kyebwo''' the reciprocal particle (usually comes immediately after the verb) is obviously derived from the phrase '''kyé bwò'''
| | And it can make nouns from nouns |
|
| |
|
| Notice that normally we would have '''-s''' on both John and Jane ... however not in the reciprocal construction.
| | '''alha''' = flower |
|
| |
|
| Also note that '''é'''(and) is not used between proper names.
| | '''hawan''' = a bee |
| | |
| ===To allow or let=== | |
| | |
| '''kyé''' is used to express "to allow" or "to let".
| |
| | |
| John let Jane go => '''jonos kyori bé jeneye'''
| |
| | |
| Note that this construction mirrors the construction in 1) above, with an infinitive substituted for indirect object (i.e. '''bé''' "to go" for '''toili''' "book").
| |
| | |
| ===The passive construction===
| |
| | |
| '''bwò''' is involved in the passive construction.
| |
| | |
| 3) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = John hit Jane
| |
| | |
| 4) '''jene<sub>S</sub> bwori timpa''' ('''jonotu''') = Jane was hit (by John)
| |
| | |
| 4) is the passive equivalent of 3) ... used when the A argument is unknown or unimportant.
| |
| | |
| If the agent is mentioned, he or she is marked by the instrumentive '''pilana'''.
| |
| | |
| --------------
| |
| | |
| Notice that all the derived verbs are transitive. There are three ways that we can make an intransitive clause.
| |
| | |
| 1) '''pintu tí mapori''' = The door closed itself ... this form strongly implies that there was no human agent. Possibly the wind closed the door (or a supernatural element when it comes to that).
| |
| | |
| 2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = The door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
| |
| | |
| 3) '''pintu lí mapa''' = The door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
| |
| | |
| By the way, the '''G'''-form of '''nava''' "open" is '''navai'''
| |
| | |
| Let us go back to '''gèu''' and consider '''gèu''' in an intransitive clause. As above we have 3 ways.
| |
| | |
| 1) '''báu tí geusori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved.
| |
| | |
| 2) '''báu bwori gèus''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
| |
| | |
| 3) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
| |
| | |
| --------------
| |
| | |
| Notice that '''naikes''' means the same as '''kyé sau naike''' (to give to be sharp) ... but why say this mouthful when you can simply say '''naikes'''.
| |
| | |
| --------------
| |
| | |
| Any single syllable adjective, must have the suffix '''du''' in all its verbal forms. For example ;-
| |
| | |
| '''àus''' = to blacken, '''maŋkeu''' = faces
| |
| | |
| '''ausuri maŋkiteu''' = they blackened their faces ... interesting construction ... we use the transitive form even tho' they perform the action on themselves.
| |
| | |
| ===The causative construction===
| |
| | |
| '''du''' = "to do" or "to make"
| |
| | |
| '''(pàs) dari oye timpa glá''' = I made him/her hit the woman
| |
| | |
| '''(pàs) dari oye dono''' = I made him/her walk
| |
| | |
| Alternatively we can use the '''tá''' particle and drop the '''-ye'''
| |
| | |
| '''(pàs) dari tá (ó) donor''' = I made him/her walk
| |
| | |
| Is the below OK ?
| |
| | |
| '''bwari kyé bé''' = I received permission to go = I received to give to go.
| |
| | |
| '''jene bwori du dono''' = Jane was made to walk
| |
| | |
| Note that there are three verbs in a row in the line above. '''dono''' seems to qualify '''du''', and '''du dono''' seems to qualify '''bwori'''
| |
| | |
| ('''pàs''') '''bwari du solbe moze''' ('''jonotu''') = I was made to drink the water (by John)
| |
| | |
| '''moze bwori solbe''' ('''jenetu''') = The water was drunk (by Jane)
| |
| | |
| ===Who/what is responsible===
| |
| | |
| 1) '''pintu lí mapa''' = the door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.
| |
| | |
| Agent => Anything ... It could be that the agent was the wind ... or even some evil spirits ... use your imagination.
| |
| | |
| 2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = the door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. (By the way ... I don't mean '''pintu rì mapa''' when I say "the door was closed")
| |
| | |
| Agent => Human and the action deliberate ... It strongly implies that the agent was human but is either unknown or unimportant.
| |
| | |
| Now lets consider '''gèudu''' = "to turn green" ... ambitransitive, S and A ... as in English.
| |
| | |
| 1) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
| |
| | |
| Agent => Anything and the action could be accidental.
| |
| | |
| 2) '''báu bwori geudu''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
| |
| | |
| Agent => Human and the action deliberate
| |
| | |
| 3) '''báus tí geudori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved and definitely a deliberate action.
| |
| | |
| Agent => The man and the action deliberate
| |
| | |
| ==Ambitransitive verbs==
| |
| | |
| '''fompe''' is an intransitive and a transitive verb (S and A)
| |
| | |
| '''jene fompori''' = Jane tripped
| |
| | |
| '''jonos fompori jene''' = John tripped Jane
| |
| | |
| '''halka''' is an intransitive and a transitive verb (S and O)
| |
| | |
| '''pintu halkori''' = the door broke
| |
| | |
| '''jonos pintu halkori''' = John broke the door
| |
| | |
| A list of 6 ambitransitive (S and A) verbs
| |
| | |
| '''tonza''' = to awaken, to wake up
| |
| | |
| '''henda''' = to put on clothes
| |
| | |
| '''laudo''' = to wash
| |
| | |
| '''poi''' = "to enter" or "to put in"
| |
| | |
| '''gau''' = "to rise" or "to raise"
| |
| | |
| '''sai''' = "to descend" or "to lower"
| |
| | |
| To recognize as a transitive clause you must look for the ergative '''-s''', if no '''-s''' then we have an intransitive clause.
| |
| | |
| Or alternatively you must look for the particle '''kyebwo'''
| |
| | |
| Tom Jerry '''halkuri''' = Tom and Jerry broke
| |
| | |
| Tom Jerry '''halkuri kyebwo''' = Tom and Jerry broke one and other.
| |
| | |
| == ..... The Calendar ==
| |
| | |
| [[Image:The_Calendar_3.png]]
| |
| | |
| The '''béu''' calendar is interesting. Definitely interesting. A 73 day period is called a '''dói'''. 5 x 73 => 365.
| |
| | |
| The phases of the moon are totally ignored in the '''béu''' system of keeping count of the time.
| |
| | |
| The first day of the '''dói''' is '''nelauja''' followed by '''hija''', then '''auja lozoja celaija''' and then '''aiva''' etc. etc. all the way upto '''kiʔoka'''.
| |
| | |
| The days to the right are workdays ('''saipito''') while the days to the left are days off work ('''saifuje'''). Each month has a special festival ('''hinta''') associated with it. These festivals are held in the three day period comprising '''lozoga, celaiga, helauga'''. The five "months" are named after the 5 planets that are visible to the naked eye. The 5 big festivals that occur every year are also named after these planets.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| border=1
| |
| |align=center| mercury
| |
| |align=center| '''ʔoli'''
| |
| |align=center| Month 1
| |
| |align=center| '''doiʔoli'''
| |
| |align=center| Xmas... on 21,22,23 Dec
| |
| |align=center| '''hinʔoli'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| venus
| |
| |align=center| '''pwè'''
| |
| |align=center| Month 2
| |
| |align=center| '''doipwe'''
| |
| |align=center| festival on 4,5,6 Mar
| |
| |align=center| '''himpwe'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| mars
| |
| |align=center| '''gú'''
| |
| |align=center| Month 3
| |
| |align=center| '''doigu'''
| |
| |align=center| festival on 16,17,18 May
| |
| |align=center| '''hiŋgu'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| jupiter
| |
| |align=center| '''gamazu'''
| |
| |align=center| Month 4
| |
| |align=center| '''doigamazu'''
| |
| |align=center| festival on 28,29,30 July
| |
| |align=center| '''hiŋgamazu'''
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| saturn
| |
| |align=center| '''yika'''
| |
| |align=center| Month 5
| |
| |align=center| '''doiyika'''
| |
| |align=center| festival on 9,10,11 Oct
| |
| |align=center| '''hinyika'''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| '''hinʔoli''' ... This is the most important festival of the year. It celebrates the starting of a fresh year. It celebrates the stop of the sun getting weaker. It is centred on the family and friends that you are living amongst. Even though eating and drinking are involved in all the five festivals, this festival has the most looked-forward-to feasts.
| |
| | |
| '''himpwe''' ... People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various music and poetry competitions. Sky lanterns are usually released on the last day of this festival. On the first two days of the festival, what is called the "fire walk" is performed. This is to promote social solidarity. Each locality comprising up to 400 people build a fire in some open ground. These people are divided into 2 sections. One section to walk and one section to receive walkers. The walkers are further divided into groups. Each group is assigned another fire to visit and they set of in single file. Each of them carries a torch (a brand) ignited from the home fire. Upon arriving at the fire that they have been assigned (involving a walk of, maybe, 5 or 6 miles) they throw their brand into the fire as their hosts sing the "fire song". After that the visitors are offered much drinks and snacks by their hosts. There is considerable competition between the various localities to be the most generous host. The routes that people must go have been chosen previously by a central committee, but the destination is only revealed to the walkers just before they set out. On the second day the same thing happens but the two sections, the walkers and the receivers of the walkers, swap over rolls.
| |
| | |
| '''hiŋgu''' ... It is usual to get together with old friends around this time and many parties are held. Friends that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken to meet up with old acquainances. Also there is a big exchange of letters at this time. The most important happenings of the last year are stated in these letters along with hopes and plans for the coming year.
| |
| | |
| '''hiŋgamazu''' ... This festival is all about outdoor competitions and sporting events. It is a little like a cross between the Olympics games and the highland games. People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various team and individual competitions. However care is taken that no regional centre becomes too popular and people are discouraged from competing at centres other than their local one. Also at this festival, a "fire walk" is done,
| |
| just the same as at the "himpwe" festival.
| |
| | |
| '''hinyika''' ... Family that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken for family visits and ancestors ashboxes are visited if convenient. This is the second most important festival of the year. People often take extra time off work to travel, or to entertain guests. Fireworks are let of for a 2 hour period on the night of '''helauga'''. This is one of the few occasions where fireworks are allowed.
| |
| | |
| By the way, when a year changes, it doesn't change between months, it changes between '''lozoga''' and '''celaiga'''.
| |
| | |
| Every 4 years an extra day is added to the year. The '''doiʔoli''' gets a '''helauca'''.
| |
| | |
| '''béu''' also has a 128 year cycle. This circle is called '''ombatoze'''. There is a animal associated with every year of the '''ombatoze'''.
| |
| | |
| These animals are ;-
| |
| | |
| {|
| |
| | wolf || weasel/ermine/stoat/mink || bullfinch || badger
| |
| |-
| |
| | whale || opossum || albatross || beautiful armadillo
| |
| |-
| |
| | giant anteater || lynx || eagle || cricket/grasshopper/locust
| |
| |-
| |
| | reindeer || springbok || dove || gnu/wildebeest
| |
| |-
| |
| | spider || Steller's sea cow || seagull || gorilla
| |
| |-
| |
| | horse || scorpion || raven/crow || python
| |
| |-
| |
| | rhino || yak || Kookaburra || porcupine ?
| |
| |-
| |
| | butterfly || triceratops || penguin || koala
| |
| |-
| |
| | polar bear || manta-ray || hornbill || raccoon
| |
| |-
| |
| | crocodile/alligator || wolverine || pelican || zebra
| |
| |-
| |
| | bee || warthog || peacock || capybara
| |
| |-
| |
| | bat || bear || crane/stork/heron || hedgehog
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog || lama || woodpecker || gemsbok
| |
| |-
| |
| | musk ox || chameleon || hawk || cheetah
| |
| |-
| |
| | lion || frill-necked lizard || toucan || okapi
| |
| |-
| |
| | dolphin || aardvark || ostrich || T-rex
| |
| |-
| |
| | kangaroo || hyena || duck || driprotodon(wombat)
| |
| |-
| |
| | shark || cobra || kingfisher || gaur
| |
| |-
| |
| | dragonfly || mole || moa || chimpanzee
| |
| |-
| |
| | turtle/tortoise || N.A. bison || black skimmer || panda
| |
| |-
| |
| | jaguar || snail || cormorant/shag || Cape buffalo
| |
| |-
| |
| | rabbit || colossal squid || vulture || glyptodon/doedicurus
| |
| |-
| |
| | beetle || seal || falcon || pangolin
| |
| |-
| |
| | megatherium || woolly mammoth || flamingo || baboon
| |
| |-
| |
| | elk/moose || squirrel || blue bird of paradise || lobster
| |
| |-
| |
| | tiger || gecko || grouse || seahorse
| |
| |-
| |
| | jackal/fox || octopus || swan || lemur
| |
| |-
| |
| | elephant || swordfish || parrot || auroch
| |
| |-
| |
| | giraffe || ant || puffin || iguana
| |
| |-
| |
| | mouse || crab || swift || mongoose/meerkat
| |
| |-
| |
| | smilodon || giant beaver || owl || mantis
| |
| |-
| |
| | camel || goat || hummingbird || walrus
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| Each of these animals above is a '''toze''', which can be translated as "token", "icon" or "totem ". '''omba''' means a circle or cycle. So you can see where the name for the 128 year period comes from.
| |
| | |
| The very last '''helauca''' of every '''ombatoze''' is dropped.
| |
| | |
| '''ombatoze''' is sometimes translated as "life", "generation" or "century"
| |
| | |
| '''xxx''' means a 4 year period. It also means "calendar".
| |
| | |
| The start of time
| |
| ---------------
| |
| | |
| Year 2000 had 365.242,192,65 days
| |
| | |
| Every year is shorter than the last by 0.000,000,061,4 days
| |
| | |
| By adding one day every 4 years we get a 365.25 day year
| |
| | |
| If we then drop one day every '''ombatoze''' we get a 365.242,187,5 day year (actually very close to the actual year length)
| |
| | |
| Before 2084, the actual year will be bigger than the calendar year – after 2084 the actual year will be smaller than the calendar year
| |
| | |
| For this reason midnight, 22 Dec 2083 is designated the fulcrum of the whole system. That day will be time zero.
| |
| | |
| At the moment we are in negative time.
| |
|
| |
|
| == ..... Index== | | == ..... Index== |
|
| |
|
| {{Béu Index}} | | {{Béu Index}} |
..... Copula's
The word copula comes from the Latin word "copulare" meaning "to tie", so a copula is a verb that ties.
In béu(as in other languages) they differ from normal verbs in that they are quite irregular.
Also in béu a copula clause taiviza requires a specific word order and the s (the ergative case) is never suffixed to any noun, as normally happens when a verb is associated with two nouns.
... sàu
sàu is the béu main copula and is the copula of state. It is the equivalent of "to be" in English, which has such forms as "be", "is", "was", "were" and "are".
The table below echoes the second table given in "The R-form of the verb"
In three rows (the second and the two at the end) the copula includes the cenʔo. In the table the a of the first person singular is given. In rows 1 and 3 the copula does not include the cenʔo (so obviously when these form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedant word)
The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use rà or ká followed by the béu equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".
Actually rà is usually dropped completely.
It is mostly used for emphasis; like when you are refuting a claim
Person A) ... gí ká moltai = You aren't a doctor
Person b) ... pá rà moltai = I am a doctor
Another situation where rà tends to be used is when either the subject or the copula complement are longish trains of words. For example ...
solboi alkyo ʔá dori rà sawoi = Those alcoholic drinks that she made are delicious.
The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb.
... láu
láu is the béu is the copula of change of state. It is the equivalent of "become" in English.
Again the table below echoes the table given in "The R-form of the verb"
In four rows (the second, third and the two at the end) the copula includes the cenʔo. In the table the a of the first person singular is given. In the first row the copula does not include the cenʔo (so obviously when this form are used the subject must be expressed as an indepedant word)
The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have two entries enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a present tense copula or a negative present copula you would express it periphrastically ... you would use rà or ká followed by the béu equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".
As you can see this copula is more regular than the main copula.
The evidentials are appended to the copula as they would be to a normal verb.
láu hauʔe = to become beautiful OR to become a beautiful woman
... The copula of existence
Some languages have a verb to indicate that something exists. twái
This usually introduces a new protagonist in a narrative. The new protagonist is by definition, indefinite. For example ...
twor glá gáu ʔaiho = There was an old and ugly woman
Often it is used with a phrase of location.
nambopi twuru aiba glabua = There will be three people in the house .... 3 people are in the house ???
There is no word that corresponds to "have". The usual way to say "I have a coat" ...
pán twor kaunu = "at me exists a coat"
??????????????????
há = place
dí = this
dè = that
While you sometimes come across the há dí the word hái is the usual way to express "here".
In a similar manner you sometimes come across the há dè the word ade* is the usual way to express "there".
*This word is an exception to the rule that inside a word and between vowels, d can be either pronounced as "d" or "ð". In ade the d is always pronounced "ð".
There is a house = A house exists = ade (rà) nambo
This is patterned on the more general locative construction.
In the apple tree is a beehive ????
ade pona paye = "I feel cold" ... maybe against expectations ... no reason to think that other people would be cold.
ʃi pona = "It is cold" ... everybody should feel cold
..... The verb complex or verb phrase
Also often called the predicate. Called the jaudauza in béu
The predicate is made up of ...
1) one of two particles that show likelihood which are optional.
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called mazebai. The mazebai are a subgroup of feŋgi (the particles)
2) one of five particles that show modality. These are also optional.
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called seŋgebai. The seŋgebai are a subgroup of feŋgi (the particles)
3) a gomua (a full verb)
... mazebai
These appear first in the predicate.
These particles show the probability of the verb occurring.
1) màs solbori = maybe he drank
2) lói solbori = probably he drank
You could say that the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty
... seŋgebai
These appear next in the predicate.
These particles correspond to what is called the "modal" words in English. The five seŋgeba are ...
1) sú which codes for strong obligation or duty. It is equivalent to "should" in English. In English certain instances of the word "must" also carries this meaning.
2) seŋga which codes for weak obligation. It is equivalent to "ought to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "ought to" is dying out, and "should" is coding weak obligation also)
3) alfa which codes for ability. It is equivalent to "can" in English. As in English it means that subject has the strength or the skill to perform the action. Also as in English it codes for possibilities/situations which are not dependent on the subject. For example ... udua alfa solbur => "the camels can drink" in the context of "the caravan finally reached Farafra Oasis"
4) hempi which codes for permission. It is equivalent to "may" or "to be allowed to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "may" is dying out, and "can" is coding for permission also)
5) hentai means knowledge. It is equivalent to "know how to" in English. (Note ... in English certain instances of the word "can" also carries this meaning)
The form that these seŋgeba and the main verb take appears strange. Where as, logically, you would expect the suffixes for person, number, tense, aspect and evidential to be attached to the seŋgeba and the main verb maybe in its infinitive form, the seŋgeba do not change their form and the suffixes appear on the main verb as normal. This is one oddity that marks the seŋgeba off as a separate word class.*
Some examples ...
1)
a) sú -er => you should visit your brother
b) sú -eri => you should have visited your brother
c) sú hamperka animals => you should not feed the animals
d) sú hamperki animals => you shouldn't have fed the animals
Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza súa
2)
a) seŋga humper little => you ought to eat a little
b) seŋga humperi little => you ought to have eaten a little
c) seŋga solberka brandy => you ought to not drink brandy
d) seŋga solberki brandy => you ought to have not drunk that brandy
Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza seŋgua
3)
a) fà -or => he can swim across the river
b) fà-ori => he could swim across the river
c) fà solborka => he can stop drinking
d) fà solborki => he could stop drinking
Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza fùa
4)
a) hempi bor festa => "she may go to the party" or "she can go to the party" or "she is allowed to go to the party"
b) hempi bori festa => she was allowed to go to the party
c) hempi borka school => he is allowed to stop attending school
d) hempi bori school => he was allowed to stop attending school
Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza hempua
5)
a) hentai bamor car => "she can drive a car" or "she knows how to drive a car"
b) hentai bamori car => she knew how to drive a car
c) hentai boikorka car => He has the ability not to crash the car
d) hentai boikorki car => He had the ability not to crash the car
Note these are the tenses allowed in a jaudauza hentua
*Two other oddities also marks off the seŋgeba as a separate word class. These are ...
1) When you want to question a jaudauza containing a seŋgeba you change the position of the main verb and the seŋgeba. For example ...
bor hempi festa => "may she go to the party" ... shades of English here.
2) All 5 seŋgeba can be negativized by deleting the final vowel and adding aiya. For example ...
faiya -or ??? => he can't swim across the river
Note ... sometimes the negative marker on the seŋgeba can occur along with the normal negative marker on the main verb to give an emphatic positive. Sometimes it produces a quirky effect. For example ...
jenes faiya humpor cokolate => Jane can't eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability to eat chocolates) ... for example she is a diabetic and can not eat anything sweet.
jenes fa humporka cokolate => Jane can not eat chocolates (Jane have the ability not to eat chocolates)... meaning she has the willpower to resist them.
jenes faiya humporka cokolate => Jane can not not eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability, not to eat chocolates) ... meaning she can't resist them.
There are 5 nouns that correspond to the 5 seŋgeba
anzu = duty
seŋgo = obligation
alfa = ability
hempo = permission or leave
hento = knowledge
Note on English usuage (in fact all the Germanic languages) ... the way English handles negating modal words is a confusing. Consider "She can not talk". Since the modal is negated by putting "not" after it and the main verb is negated by putting "not" in front of it, this could either mean ...
a) She doesn't have the ability to talk
or
b) She has the ability to not talk
Note only when the meaning is a) can the proposition be contracted to "she can't talk". In fact, when the meaning is b), usually extra emphasis would be put on the "not". a) is the usual interpretation of "She can not talk" and if you wanted to express b) you would rephrase it to "She can keep silent". This rephrasing is quite often necessary in English when you have a modal and a negative main verb to express.
... wepua
We have already mentioned the two mazeba at the beginning of this section.
Actually there is another particle that occurs in the same slot as the mazeba and it also codes for likelihood. This is wepua and it constitutes a subgroup of feŋgi (the particles) all by itself.
1) más solbori = maybe he drank
2) lói solbori = probably he drank
3) wepua solbori = he must have drank
You could say that while the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty, the third shows 100% certainty.
3) Indicates that some "evidence" or "background information" exists to allow the speaker to assert what he is saying. It also carries the meaning "there is no other conclusion given the evidence".This obviously has some functional similarities to the -s evidential. However the -s evidential carries less than 100 % certainty ...
solboris = I guess/suppose he drunk
wepua never appears in front of the first two seŋgebai. This is the difference between wepua and the mazebai.
The word wepua is derived from pè meaning "to need". pòi means necessities.wepua can be thought of as meaning something like "being necessary" or "of necessity".
... 4 suffixes -u, -va, -inda, -wan
These all form adjectives. The first 2 might have some connection with the seŋgeba.
i.e. solbe = to drink
moze = water
moze solbu = the water which must be drunk
moze solbeva = drinkable water
There is also another suffix, but this one can be said to be unrelated to "like"
moze solbinda = water worth drinking
bawa solbewan = men inclined to drink
The last one also makes adjectives from other adjectives. i.e.
hìa = red
hiawan = reddish
And it can make nouns from nouns
alha = flower
hawan = a bee
..... Index
- Introduction to Béu
- Béu : Chapter 1 : The Sounds
- Béu : Chapter 2 : The Noun
- Béu : Chapter 3 : The Verb
- Béu : Chapter 4 : Adjective
- Béu : Chapter 5 : Questions
- Béu : Chapter 6 : Derivations
- Béu : Chapter 7 : Way of Life 1
- Béu : Chapter 8 : Way of life 2
- Béu : Chapter 9 : Word Building
- Béu : Chapter 10 : Gerund Phrase
- Béu : Discarded Stuff
- A statistical explanation for the counter-factual/past-tense conflation in conditional sentences
