Béu : Chapter 7: Difference between revisions

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== ..... The '''-ana''' suffix==
== ..... Word order and definiteness==


This suffix, added to a verb, gives a noun. For example ...
An interesting concept. The English language usage is;-


'''kludau''' = to write         
1) unknown to speaker and listener ... "I want to buy '''a''' dog"


'''kludana''' = writer/author
2) known to speaker but unknown to listener ... "I read '''a''' book yesterday" ..... however if the speaker is going to reveal more about "book" he would say "I read '''this''' book yesterday"


== ..... The '''béu''' participles and the NP with the present participle core==
3) unknown to speaker but known to listener ... "'''that''' dog that bit you yesterday was put down" .... or equally valid ... "'''the''' dog that bit you yesterday was put down"


There are three participles in '''béu'''. They are known as '''plofai''' in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition.
The question here is, of course, if the dog is "totally" unknown to the speaker ... why is here speaking about it ... ah, we must go deeper


A participle is an adjective that has been derived from a verb.
4) known to speaker and listener ... "I read '''the''' Bible yesterday"


Taking '''kludau''' (to write) to demonstrate these participles.
Or consider ''this'' Norwegian, getting more definite in six easy steps.


1) '''kludi''' is an adjective meaning "written"  
5) She wants to marry '''a''' Norwegian ............. Could be '''any''' Norwegian. "She" does not even have any definite Norwegian in mind.


'''toili kludi''' = the written book ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in '''béu''' ... '''kludi''' => a thing that is written => a note
6) She wants to marry '''a''' Norwegian ............. Unknown to speaker and listener. But "she" has her eye on a particular Noggie.


2) '''kludu''' is an adjective meaning "that must be written"
7) She wants to marry '''some''' Norwegian ..... '''Not any''' Norwegian but the speaker known very little about him and the listener nothing.


'''toili kludu''' = "the book that must be written" or "the book that should be written"  ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in '''béu''' ... '''kludu''' => that which must be written => a (school) assignment
8) She wants to marry '''a''' Norwegian<sup>**</sup> ........ Known to speaker but unknown to listener


3) '''kludaula''' is an adjective meaning "writing at this moment".
9) She wants to marry '''this''' Norwegian ........ Known to speaker but unknown to listener


Now '''kludaula''' is definitely an adjective.
10) She wants to marry '''that''' Norwegian ....... Known to speaker and listener


'''kludaula toili''' "reading a book" is an adjective phrase (AP) in which the noun '''toili''' qualifies the adjective '''kludaula'''.
9) and 10) can be said to be "half-definite" (my own term) The Norwegian is known but as a sort of peripheral character that hasn't as yet impinged on the consciousness<sup>*</sup> of the interlocutors that much. As/if  he becomes more into focus in the interlocutors lives he will, of course, become, '''the''' Norwegian (or more probably Oddgeir or Roar or what have you).


(If you remember, usually '''béu''' does not like a '''pilana''' making any phrase non-contiguous. -'''la''' suffixing to a '''gomia''' is an exception to this rule)
11) She wants to marry '''the''' Norwegian ... As definite as you can get, I guess.


Now the phrase '''jono kludaula toili''' is a noun phrase (NP) in which the AP qualifies the noun '''jono'''
The use of '''this''' and '''that''' for "half-definite" makes sense ... it is iconic. "This thing" is near the speaker hence seen, touched, smelt by the speaker ... known to the speaker.


(Notice that in the clause that corresponds to the above NP, '''jonos kludora toili''' (John is reading the book), '''jono''' has the ergative suffix and the 3 words can occur in any order : with the NP, '''jono''' does not take the ergative suffix and the 3 words must occur in the order shown.)
"That thing" is out in the open, hence experienced/known to both speaker and listener.


Now the question is where is this special NP used. Well it is used in situations where English would use a complement clause. For example with '''algo''' meaning "to think about",<sup>*</sup>
<sup>*</sup>Or the world-model that we each build up inside our heads.


1) '''algara jono''' = I am thinking about John.
<sup>**</sup>Notice that "She wants to marry a Norwegian" is ambiguous ... it could either have the implications of either 5), 6) or 8).
-----


2) '''algara jono kludaula toili''' = I am thinking about John writing a book.
But enough of English. '''béu''' makes a noun more definite by putting it further to the left. To have an obligatory '''a''' or '''the''' in front of every noun is wasteful. However non-obligatory particles (such as "some" are fine)


Note ... According to Dixon, the standard English translation of 2) would be "I am thinking about John's writing a book" which I find quite strange even though English is my mother tongue. I have decided to call this sort of construction in '''béu''' a special kind of NP, while Dixon has called the equivalent expression in English the "-ing" type of complement clause. I think this is just a naming thing and doesn't really matter.
Basically if a noun or noun phrase is to the left of the verb<sup>*</sup> it is definite, if it is to the right it is indefinite. For example ;-


<sup>*</sup>"to think (that)" is '''alhu''' in '''béu'''. '''alhu''' also translates "to believe".
'''báus timpori glà''' = The man hit a woman


== ..... A discussion of English participles==
'''glà timpori báus''' = A man hit the woman


However this rule does not effect proper names and pronouns. They are always definite so they can wonder anywhere in the clause and it doesn't make any difference.


Now English has two participles, the "active participle" and the "passive participle".
<sup>*</sup>When I say verb here I am not counting the three copula's. They always have the order


They appear as adjectives (of course, an adjective derived from a noun is the definition of "a participle"), however both forms also appear in verb phrases. If you are given a clause out of context it is sometimes impossible to tell if the participle is acting as an adjective or as part of a verb phrase. For example ... first the "active participle" ...
Copula-subject copula copula-complement


1) The writing man
Also dependent clauses have fixed word order ???


2) The man is writing
== ..... Adjectives and how they pervade other parts of speech==


3) The man is writing a book
Earlier on in this chapter we discussed parts of speech. In béu, sometimes, an unmodified word can belong to 2 or 3 different parts of speech at once.


In 1) "writing" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "writing" and the sentence makes perfect sense.
Also earlier on I introduced the '''gomua''' (G) or the infinitive, as a part of speech. This is the "base form" of the verb and it resembles a noun in many respects. It is being treated as a seperate part of speech ... just for convenience really. I do not want to get into an argument about linguistic theories etc. etc. This is just to make things easy to discuss.


As for 2) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.
Let us start of with a single-syllable adjective. Let us see what forms a single-syllable adjective can take and what "parts of speech" these forms can belong to. Consider the word '''gèu''' "green" ;-


For 3) ... No not an adjective "The man is green a book" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 3) is that "is writing" is a verb phrase (one that has given progressive meaning to the verb "write"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 2). The proper analysis of this could be that "is writing" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 2) is embedded (and even then, there would be certain situations when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).


... now the "passive participle" ...
[[Image:TW_158.png]]


1) The broken piano
Along the top of the above chart you can see N, A, V and G (noun, adjective, verb and '''gomua''').


2) The piano is broken
The form under these 4 headings, shows the form '''gèu''' takes when it is one of these 4 parts of speech. '''gèu''' is fundamentally an adjective (that is what the thicker border around the "A" means).


3) The piano was broken
You can see that we have two nouns forms in the above chart. One has its original form, I call this one "the substansive noun" (meaning "the green one"). The other changes its form by taking the affix '''-n'''. I call this one "the qualitative noun" (meaning "greenness").


4) The piano was broken by the monkey
We can see that we can derive a verb from '''gèu'''. By affixing '''-s''' we get an transitive verb meaning "to make green". You can see that the '''V'''-forms and the '''G'''-forms are the same.


In 1) and 2)  "broken" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "broken" and the sentence makes perfect sense.
Actually the '''V'''-form is not '''gèus'''. The '''V'''-form is actually a myriad of forms. But they are all built up from the '''gèus''' foundations. As an example let us build up one of the myriad of forms that the '''V'''-form can take. First we add a vowel, either '''a''', '''i''', '''o''', '''u''', '''e''', '''au''' or '''ai''', that represents the subject ... then we add, either '''r''', '''n''' or '''s''' (depending on if we want the indicative mood, the subjunctive nood or the imperative) ... then we add a vowel (or consonant + vowel) as a tense/aspect marker, either ??? ... then we possibly add an evidential marker, either '''n''', '''s''' or '''a'''. So we could get  '''geus''' + '''i''' + '''r''' + '''i'''  +'''a''' => '''geuʃiria''' = "you became green, I saw it" ... one of the many forms considered as a '''V'''-form.


As for 3) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.
OK. We have seen how a single-syllable adjective works. Now for a 2-syllable adjective. Consider the word '''naike''' "sharp" ;-


For 4) ... No not an adjective "The piano was green by the monkey" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 4) is that "was broken" is a verb phrase (one that has given passive meaning to the ambitransitive verb "break"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 3). The proper analysis of this could be that "was broken" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 3) is embedded  (and even then, there would be certain situations<sup>*</sup> when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).


<sup>*</sup>The five-week deadlock between striking Peugeot workers and their employer was broken yesterday when the management obtained a court order to end a 10-day sit-in at one of the two factories in eastern France, Sarah Lambert writes.
[[Image:TW_159.png]]


I would say either analysis is valid for the above sentence.
We can see that in this case it is possible to have 3 parts of speech from only one form. However in this case the "finite" verb (V) is built up directly from '''naike''' and not from the '''G'''-form. So, for example, we have '''naikiria''' = "you sharpened (it), I saw you do it". Rather than '''*naikeʃiria'''.


== ..... Start, Stop, Try==
== ..... Verbs and how they pervade other parts of speech==


In '''béu''', three secondary verbs (in English) are expressed by a copula plus a '''pilana'''. They are ...


to start drinking => láu solbelya
[[Image:TW_85.png]]


to stop drinking => láu solbelfe


to try drinking => sàu solbewo


And just to demonstrate that the above doesn't necessary lead to confusion ...
[[Image:TW_86.png]]


He talks about drinking => cator solbewo
'''slaii''' is pronounced as two syllables ... as you would say "sly "e" " ...  glottal stop between the syllables ... quite easy to say.


We talk about trying to drink => catair wo sàu solbewo
'''slaiana'''is pronounced as three syllables ... '''slai ... a ... na''' ... also easy to say.


So in fact the '''gomia''' take 8 of the 12 '''pilana''' ... '''ji    ge      n        ho      la      lfe      lya      wo'''
== ................. Nouns and how they pervade other parts of speech==


The ergative '''s''' also occurs but only in its prepositional form '''sá'''
'''nambo'''
-----
[[Image:TW_89.png]]


== ..... Want==
'''nambo''' meaning house is a fairly typical non-single-syllable noun and we can use it to demonstrate how '''béu''' generates other words from nouns.


If then the  
'''nambodu'''
-----
Not many nouns can be used as verbs. However when an action is associated to a certain noun, usually, with no change of form, it can be used as a verb. For example '''lotova''' means bicycle and you get '''lotovarwi''' meaning "I used to ride my bicycle". For the infinitive, '''du''' must be affixed to the basic form.


1) '''wár bái nambo''' => I want to go home
The meaning given to the verb '''nambo''' is arrived at through metaphor, it is not so straight forward as the bicycle example.


2) '''wár bís nambo''' => I want you to go home
The use of all tools can be expressed in a similar manner to '''lotova'''.


3) '''wár  timpis ò''' => I want you to hit her/him
'''nambon'''
-----
Sometimes in English a bare noun can be used to qualify another noun (i.e. it can act as an adjective). For example in the phrase "history teacher", "history" has the roll usually performed by an adjective ... for example, "the sadistic teacher". This can never happen in '''béu''', the noun must undergo some sort of change. The most common change for '''nambo''' is it to change into its genitive form '''nambon''' as in '''pintu nambon''' "the door of the house". Other changes that can occur are the affixation of '''-go''' or '''-ka'''. These are used with certain nouns more than others. They are not used that much with the noun '''nambo''' so I haven't included them in the chart above. You could use the forms '''nambogo''' or '''namboka''' if you wanted tho' (they would mean "house-like"). Maybe you would use one of these terms in a joke ... it would stike the listener as ''slightly'' odd however.


4) '''wár tà (gìs) timpirwa ò''' => I wish that you had hit her/him  .... Note that we have '''timpirwa''' and not '''timpirwi'''
'''nambia'''
-----
This is a very common derivation. Nearly all nouns can take this transformation.  


So in the above ... the construction as in 1) is used when the person doing the wanting, is also the subject (A or O) of the action required and the second action sort of "follows on" from the "wanting".
'''nambia''' is an adjective meaning "having a home". And its use as a noun is quite common as well, in which case it would probably be translater as "a home owner"


The construction as in 2) and 3) is used when the person doing the wanting is different from the subject (A or O) of the action required. The second action again sort of "following on" from the "wanting".
'''nambua'''
-----
Also a very common derivation. The opposite of '''nambia'''.


The construction as in 4) is used when the person doing the wanting is different from the subject (A or O) of the action required AND the second action DOES NOT "following on" from the "wanting".
'''nambua''' means '''homeless''' or '''the homeless'''


TO THINK ABOUT
Note that although '''ia''' and '''ua''' are exact opposites, the usage of the words produced from these affixes do not completely mirror each other. It all depends oner what the base word is.


---------------
For example, in this case, the form '''nambia''' is a bit rarer than '''nambia'''. Also '''nambua''' is used more often as an adjective than as a noun, while '''nambia''' is used more often as a noun than an adjective.


Now we have said before that '''béu''' has free word order, however this really only applies to the verb in R-form (R) and the S argument in an intransitive clause, and the R, A and O in a transitive clause. When you have a verb in '''gomia'''-form (G), in the subjunctive form (Sub) or in the imperative form (Imp), you must have these elements in the following order ;-
'''nambuma'''
-----
Many of the worlds languages have a suffix that has this roll. Called an "augmentative" in the Western linguistic tradition. Does not really come into play in English but quite common in '''béu'''. As well as some basic forms that appear regularly in their augmentative version, any noun can receive this affix. But of course it will stick out if it is not commonly used.


S G : S  Sub  ... the last of these (S -S ) is quite unusual. Maybe can have S  I  ... but then S must be in vocative case
'''nambita'''
 
-----
A  G  O : A  Sub  O : Imp  O ... expand this and make it look good.  Maybe can have A  I  O  ... but then A must be in vocative case
The opposite of '''nambuma'''. Called an "diminutive" in the Western linguistic tradition. In '''béu''' it is often used to show that the speaker feels affection for the noun so transformed. There is no trace of the opposite for the augmentative : nobody would use the augmentative to show repulsion.


'''nambwan'''
-----
-----
The form changes that produce '''nambia''', '''nambua''', '''nambuma''', '''nambita''', '''*nambija''' are '''*nambeba''' affected by deleting the final vowel (or diphthong) and then adding the relevant affix. However with this change of form this is not always possible to delete the final vowel (example). In this example it is possible. In fact it is possible if the final consonant of the base word is j, b, g, d,c, s, k, t, l or m.


In the '''béu''' linguistic tradition, a clause that has one R verb in it, or one N verb, or one I verb is called '''aʒiŋko baga''' or a simple clause. Any clause that has an R verb plus an  G or N, verb is called a '''aʒiŋko kaza''' or a complex clause.
'''wan''' is affixed to a few nouns, a few adjectives plus a few. Its has the sense of "tending towards","accustomed to" or "addicted to".


== .....  The Imperative==
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ái'''
  |align=center| white
  |align=center| '''aiwan'''
  |align=center| faded
  |-
  |align=center| '''lozo'''
  |align=center| grey
  |align=center| '''lozwan'''
  |align=center| grizzled
  |-
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pawan'''
  |align=center| selfish
  |-
  |align=center| '''mama'''
  |align=center| mother
  |align=center| '''mamwan'''
  |align=center| motherbound
  |-
  |align=center| '''nambo'''
  |align=center| house
  |align=center| '''nambwan'''
  |align=center| domesticated
  |-
  |align=center| '''toili'''
  |align=center| book
  |align=center| '''toilwan'''
  |align=center| bookish
  |}


In '''béu''' it is called "order"-form/shape.
By the way '''nambwan''' means domestic or domesticated. Nearly always when you come across the word it is referring to animals.


This form is used for giving orders. With the s-form you definitely want some action to happen (and you don't expect a discussion about it).
Other derivations that are not possible with '''nambo'''
-----
I have already mentioned '''nambogo''' and '''namboka''' which while possible, are not at all common. Also I will mention three other derivations that are quite common however can not occur with '''nambo'''.  


Up until now, 7 protagonists have been expressed in every verb. With the s-form however only two protagonists can be expressed.
1) '''-ija''' is affixed to the names of animals and give a word meaning the young of that animal. For example;-  


'''doikiwa''' = walk (when talking to one person)
'''huvu''' = sheep


'''doikewa''' = walk (when talking to more than one person)
'''huvija''' = lamb


Note that the verb '''au''' "to take, has the imperative forms '''wiwa''' and '''wewa'''.
'''mèu''' = cat


Very occasionally the form '''doikawa''' is heard. When somebody has difficulty preforming some task the may "order" themselves to do it. But you could say this is an "unofficial" usuage.
'''meuja''' = kitten


== .....  Verb chains==
2) '''-eba''' is an affix that produces a word meaning "a set of something" where the base word is considered as a central/typical member of that set.  For example;-


Even though the '''gomia''' can be considered proper nouns, they obey different rules of syntax compared to normal nouns.
'''baiʔo''' = spoon


They never have the '''-s''' suffix (perhaps they can have the '''sá''' preposition).
'''baiʔeba''' = cutlery


We have already discussed the type B noun phrase that they can part of.
= chair


They do not take all the '''pilana'''. However they occur with '''ge''' and '''ji''' quite a lot.  Corresponding to "by" and "in order to/to".
= furniture


He passed his exams "cheat".'''ge''' = He past his exams by cheating
'''nambeba''' could represent a set comprising (houses, huts, skyscrapers, apartment buildings, government buildings etc etc.), however this is already covered by '''bundo''' (derived from the verb '''bunda''' "to build").


He went to the river "swim".'''ji''' = He went to the river to swim.   .... note that '''ye''' woold also be acceptible here as well
3) '''-we''' ... Well the status of this one can be analysed in two ways. It could be said to be the same as the affixes mentioned above. An affix that generates an adverb<sup>*</sup> with the meaning "to act in the manner of xxxx". OK the nouns that are used with this affix tend to do something (to move) and as houses do not do much, I can not demonstrate using '''nambo'''.


They also occur with '''n''' and '''ho''' however the meaning that these suffixes add are a bit different with '''gomia'''.
Let us take '''deuta''' meaning "soldier". The word '''deutawe''' would be an adverb meaning "in the manner of a soldier". Note that if this is an affix. it has the form CV and hence does not overwrite the final vowel of the base word (unlike the other affixes).


When '''n''' is added to '''gomia''' it means that the verb is a second or later verb in a verb chain. The tense, aspect and evidentiality is the same as the initial verb. Also the subject (i.e. S or A) is the same as the subject of the initial verb.
An alternative way to look at this is a result of the "word-building" process (see section ???)


When '''ho''' is added to '''gomia''' it means that the verb is a second or later verb in a verb chain. The tense, aspect and evidentiality is the same as the initial verb. Also the subject (i.e. S or A) is the same as the object of the initial verb.  
'''wé deutan''' means "way of a soldier" or "manner of a soldier".  


Examples of the usuage of '''n'''
Now if we follow the "word-building rules"


'''bawas bura nambo laulan halfan''' => The men are going home singing and laughing        T ... N ... N
1) The genitive suffix '''n''' is dropped


'''bawas bura nambo nà laula lauloi halfan''' => The men are going home singing songs and laughing    T ... T ... N
2) The first syllable of the first word is dropped.


'''bawas bura nambo laulan nà halfa  jonowo''' => The men are going home singing and laughing about John      T ... N ... T
3) The remainder of the first word is affixed to the second word.


Could this be a good test for transitivity in '''béu''' ?? ... '''-n''' or '''nà''' ???
We get the form '''deutawe''' (wé being monosyllabic, we obviously can not delete its first syllable)


This is used when things happen at the same time and the subject of all the verbs is the same. Notice that the '''n'''-forms can come after the r-form verb.
Probably the first analysis is correct, and we should keep '''fé deutan''' as a noun phrase, and '''deutawe''' as an adverb.


It is not really important which verb comes first, perhaps the one considered the most relevant/important should come first.
<sup>*</sup>  I haven't mentioned adverbs before. They are a separate part of speech, but a part of speech that has a very marginal roll. For the most part, adverbs are the same as adjectives.


The three verbs above sort of amalgamate into a single verb. The actions should be considered a single event.
'''báu'''
-----
[[Image:TW_88.png]]


In the examples above the three constituent verbs of the verb chain happen at the same time but this is not always the case. In the example below the constituent verbs happen one after the other.
== ..... A bit about adverbs==


'''wewa hufu báin kyén jonoye''' = Take the sheep and give it to John.
If an adjective comes immediately after a verb (which it normally would) it is known to be an adverb. For example '''saco''' means "slow" but if it came immediately after a verb it would be translated as "slowly". However if we add '''-ve''' to it so we get the form '''sacowe''' the adverb can move around the utterance ... wherever it wants to go.


Examples of the usuage of '''ho'''
'''-we''' can also be affixed to a noun and also produce an adverb. For example ;-


Verbs that commonly come at the end of a verb chain.
'''deuta''' means "soldier"


For example ...... gàu = to descend, jompai = to rub …. in verb chains, the person, tense/aspect and evidentuality must be the same on every verb, but the idea of transitivity is fluid ??? For example ... jompara shi gàuho = "I am rubbing it down", jompai = "a rubbing", gàu = "a desent", gàujompai = erosion (word building ??)
'''deutawe''' means "in the manner of a soldier"


You would say "The rain erodes the mountain-range" rather than "The rain rubs the mountain-range down" because the "real" meaning of "rub" involves something solid against a something rigid.
as in '''doikora deutawe''' = he walk like a soldier


I came and saw her =>  '''kari nà ò klói'''    N ... T
So that is basically all there is to adverbs. In the Western linguistic tradition many other words are classified as adverbs. Words such as "often" and "tomorrow" etc. etc.  


I came to see her = I came in order to see her => '''kari jí ò klói'''
In the '''béu''' linguistic tradition all these words are classified as particles, a hodge podge collection of words that do not fit into the classes of noun (N), adjective (A), verb (G) or adverb.


I saw her and went => '''klari ò báin'''        T ... N
== ..... Number of categories==


I saw her and she went ''' => '''klari ò baiho'''


== .....  The Subjunctive or the irrealis==


In '''béu''' it is called "suggest"-form/shape.
So now we can say, '''béu''' has ...


You change the "r" to an "s" basically. Nothing comes after the "s". So there is no tense/aspect or evidentiality expressed on this verb form.
1      '''wepua'''


When this form is used in a main clause, you are gently urging some action  (and you are definitely open to discussion about it).
2      '''mazeba''' .......................... and 2 demonstratives


For example ;-
3      '''plova''' ......... participles ........ '''ʔinʔanandau''' or whatever words


doikain = Let's walk
4      '''teŋko''' ........ evidentials ........ relativizers or '''ʔasemo'''-marker


------------------
5      '''seŋgeba''' ..... modals  ..... and 5 specify'''ana'''


It is also used in the '''ibla'''/'''jú''' construction. When the first condition can now no longer be met and hence the second part can not be also.  
6      '''ʔanandau''' ... question words


ibla "ask"in pà jú "tell"an gì = If you had asked me, I would have told you
7      '''cenʔo''' ......... subject marked on the verb


------------------
9      '''???''' .............. personal pronouns


It is also used in other places .... for example, after the verbs "want", "
12 pilana (noun cases),  


Often occurs when in English we have "would".
15 "specified"


== ..... Complements
16 gwoma (tense/aspect verbal affixes).


== ..... To think about==
best to have 10 ??? conjunctions ???


Further uses of the "s" form of the verb. That is the subjunctive.
-------------


Also used in dependent clauses with the meaning ...
The complement clause construction ???


that xxx should yyy.
'''wí''' = to see    '''polo''' = Paul      '''timpa''' = to hit      '''jene''' = Jenny


Used after "want/hope/believe ?" if the subject is different. If subject is the same then the verb is in the '''gomia''' form.
'''wori polo timpa andai''' = He saw paul hitting something


-------------------
'''wori pá timpana ó''' = He saw me hitting her


hear, see, think, like, remember, know, believe | use '''tà + full verb''' with FACT complements.
'''wori jene bwò timpa''' = He saw Jenny being hit


hear, see, like, remember | use '''gomia''' with ACTION complements (English would use "-ing")
'''wori polo timpa jene''' = He saw Paul hitting Jenny


Sometimes when English would use the "to" construction, '''béu''' would use the -'''u''' participle | remember
'''wori pà timpa jene''' = He saw me hitting Jenny.


== Some rubbish==
In the above constructions the word order must be as shown above.


'''poma''' = leg
== ..... The transitivity of verbs in '''béu'''==


'''pomas''' = to kick, '''pomari''' = I kicked
All languages have a Verb class, generally with at least several hundred members.


'''pomaswan''' = liable to kick, fond of kicking
Leaving aside copula clauses, there are two recurrent clause types, transitive and intransitive. Verbs can be classified according to
the clause type they may occur in:
(a) Intransitive verbs, which may only occur in the predicate of an intransitive clause; for example, "snore" in English.
(b) Transitive verbs, which may only occur in the predicate of a transitive clause; for example, "hit" in English.
In some languages, all verbs are either strictly intransitive or strictly transitive. But in others there are ambitransitive (or labile) verbs, which may be used in an intransitive or in a transitive clause. These are of two varieties:
(c) Ambitransitives of type S = A. An English example is "knit", as in "She<sub>S</sub> knits" and "She<sub>A</sub> knits socks<sub>O</sub>".
(d) Ambitransitives of type S = O. An English example is "melt", as in "The butter<sub>S</sub> melted" and "She<sub>A</sub> melted the butter<sub>O</sub>".


'''pomonda''' = good to kick
English verbs can be divided into the four types mentioned above. '''béu''' verbs however can only be divided into two types, a) Intransitive, and b) Transitive. In this section it will be shown how the four English types of verb map into the two '''béu''' types. (Of course there is nothing special or unique about English ... other than the fact that a reader of this grammatical sketch will already be familiar with English)


'''klonda''' = worth seeing
===Intransitive===


Note that '''wan''' tends to be affixed to nouns while '''uzhi''' gets affixed to verbs.
..


'''An intransitive verb in English => an intransitive verb in béu'''


{| border=1
..
  |align=center| to play
  |align=center| '''lento'''
  |align=center| playful
  |align=center| '''lentuʒi'''
  |-
  |align=center| to rest/relax
  |align=center| '''loŋge'''
  |align=center| lazy
  |align=center| '''loŋguʒi'''
  |-
  |align=center| to lie
  |align=center| '''selne'''
  |align=center| untruthful by disposition
  |align=center| '''selnuʒi'''
  |-
  |align=center| to work
  |align=center| '''kodai'''
  |align=center| diligent
  |align=center| '''koduʒi'''
  |}


To fix up this bit.....Of course we can make two clauses, and have the second clause one element inside the first clause. To do that you must use the particle '''tà'''. Equivalent to one of the uses of "that" in English. '''tà''' basically tells you that the following clause should be treated like a single element, like a single noun.
An example of an intransitive verb in English is "laugh". This is also an intransitive verb in '''béu'''. In a clause containing an intransitive verb, the only argument that you have is the S argument.


I should mention '''sá tà ...'''
By the way ... some concepts that are adjectives in English are primarily intransitive verbs in '''béu''', for example ;- to be angry, to be sick, to be healthy etc. etc.


---------------------------------------
===Ambitransitive of type S=O===


'''solbe''' = to drink
..


'''heŋgo''' = to live (or it could mean "a life")
{| border=1
  |align=center|
  |align=left| x) ''' An intransitive in béu'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''An "ambitransitive of type S=O" =>'''
  |align=left|  y) '''A pair of verbs, one being intransitive and one being transitive'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=left|  z) '''A transitive in béu'''
  |}


'''soŋkau''' = to die (or it could mean "death")
..


'''glabu''' = person
x)  "Ambitransitive verbs of type S=O" which have greater frequency in intransitive clauses, are intransitive verbs in '''béu'''.


'''moze''' = water
For example ;- '''flompe''' = to trip, '''(ò)<sub>S</sub> flomporta''' = She has tripped


'''moʒi''' = steam
y)  "Ambitransitive of type S=O" verbs which are frequent in both transitive and intransitive clauses, are represented as a pair of verbs in '''béu''', one of which is intransitive and one transitive. There are a few hundred '''béu''' verbs that come in pairs like this. One should not be thought of as derived from the other; each form should be considered equally fundamental. All the pairs have the same form, except the transitive one has an extra "'''l'''" before its final consonant.


'''heŋgola''' = alive, living
For example '''hakori kusoni<sub>S</sub>''' = his chair broke : '''(pás)<sub>A</sub> halkari kusoni<sub>O</sub>''' = I broke his chair :


'''soŋki''' = dead
z)  "Ambitransitive of type S=O" verbs which have greater frequency in transitive clauses, are transitive vebs in '''béu'''.


== ..... KENKO==
For example ;- '''nava''' = to open, '''(pás)<sub>A</sub> navaru pinto<sub>O</sub>''' = I am going to open the door


'''keŋko''' = salt ... base form ... noun
=== Ambitransitive verbs of type S=A and Transitive verbs===
.
.


'''keŋkua''' = salty ... adjective             
  {| border=1
 
   |align=centre| '''An "ambitransitive of type S=A"'''
'''keŋkia''' = salt-free ... adjective
   |align=center|  
 
'''keŋkari''' = I added salt  ... verb (transitive)
 
'''keŋkos''' = to add salt
 
'''kenkoska''' = to not add salt
 
== ..... Examples of prepositions==
 
move these somewhere else
 
'''ilai''' = between
 
'''geka''' = without
 
'''mú''' = outside of
 
'''muka''' = outside
 
'''pika''' = inside  
 
-------
 
'''pòi''' = to enter or to put in
 
'''piwa nambo''' = go into the house
 
'''wiwa toilia di poiho toilicoi''' = put these book in the bookcase
 
'''wiwa toilia di pòin nambo''' = take these book into the house
 
'''wiwa toilia di pòin nambo kyén jeneye''' = take these book into the house and give to Jane
 
-------
 
'''méu''' = to exit or to take out ... I guess cat must be '''mèu'''
 
'''miwa nambo báin''' = come out of the house, get out of the house
 
== ....  -NI, NAI and -GO==
 
{| border=1
   |align=center| pronounced
  |align=center| operation
  |align=center| label
  |align=center| example
  |-
  |align=center| '''-nai'''
   |align=center| adjective => noun
  |align=center| "-ness" or "-ity"
  |align=center|  '''boinai''' = goodness
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''-go'''
   |align=center| or
  |align=center| noun => adjective, plus adjective => adjective, plus verb => adjective
   |align=center|  '''=> A transitive in béu'''
  |align=center| "ish"
   |align=center|  '''gla.go''' = effeminate, '''hia.go''' = reddish, '''bla.go''' = quarrelsome
  |}
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''gèu'''
  |align=center| green
  |align=center| '''geunai'''
  |align=center| greenness
   |-
   |-
   |align=center| '''juga'''
   |align=right| '''A transitive verb in English'''
  |align=center| wide
   |align=center|
  |align=center| '''jugani'''
  |align=center| width
  |-
  |align=center| '''tumu'''
  |align=center| stupid
  |align=center| '''tumuni'''
  |align=center| stupidity
  |-
  |align=center| '''bòi'''
  |align=center| good
  |align=center| '''boinai'''
  |align=center| goodness
  |-
  |align=center| '''mutu'''
  |align=center| important
  |align=center| '''mutumni'''
   |align=center| importance
   |}
   |}
.
.


'''-go'''
I am taking transitive and ambitransitive of type (S=A) together as I consider them to be basically the same thing but tending to opposite ends of a continuum.  
 
'''gó''' = to resemble, to be like
 
'''gó dó''' = to be the exact image of
 
'''gla.go''' = effeminate, '''hia.go''' = reddish, '''bla.go''' = quarrelsome
 
Sometimes the '''-go''' derived words have negative connotations, as in '''gal.go'''
 
There is a suffix '''-ka''' (notice it is not considered a '''pilana'''), that often has a positive connotation, sometimes making a couplet with a '''-go''' derived word. For example ;-
 
'''gla.ka''' = womanly
 
'''kài''' = to appear, to seem
 
'''kò''' = appearance
 
==..... Getting the opposite by adding "u"==


===.... A prefix for adjectives===
Consider the illustration below.  


'''taitau''' = many
At the top (with the "objects easily guessed") are verbs that are normally designated "ambitransitive of type S=A".


'''utaitau''' = few
At the bottom (with the "objects could be anything") are verbs that are normally designated "transitive".


'''mutu''' = important
.


'''umutu''' = unimportant
[[Image:TW_20.png]]


===.... and a prefix for adverb===
.


'''nan''' = for a long time   
Considering the top first. One can have "I<sub>A</sub> eat apples<sub>O</sub>" or we can have  "I<sub>S</sub> eat"


'''unan''' = not for a long time
Then considering the bottom. One can have "I<sub>A</sub> hit Jane<sub>O</sub>" but you can not have "*I<sub>S</sub> hit"


===.... and a prefix for nouns===
Moving up from the bottom. One can imagine a situation, for example when showing a horse to somebody for the first time when you would say "She<sub>S</sub> kicks". While this is possible to say this, it is hardly
common.


'''mezna''' = to fight
As we go from the top to the bottom of the continuum;-


'''meznana''' = combatant
a) The semantic area to which the object (or potential object if you will) gets bigger and bigger.


'''umeznana''' = non-combatant
b) At the bottom end the object becomes is more unpedictable and hence more pertinent.
 
As in English, not found that often. Sometimes found in rule books.
 
===.... but an infix for verbs===
 
There is a reason why we do not simply prefix '''u''' to the verbs also.
 
'''kanja''' = to fold
 
'''kunjana''' = "folding" (an adjective) or "one that folds" (a noun)
 
'''ukunjana''' = "one that doesn't fold"
 
Suppose we did simply prefix '''u''' to the verb. Then "to unfold" would be '''ukanja''', and hence '''ukanjana''' would be a noun meaning "one that unfolds".  But if you look up a bit, you can see that this form ('''ukanjana''') already has the meaning  "one that doesn't fold". This would cause confusion.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''kunja'''
  |align=center| to fold
  |align=center| '''kunjua'''
  |align=center| to unfold
  |-
  |align=center| '''laiba'''
  |align=center| to cover
  |align=center| '''laibua'''
  |align=center| to uncover
  |-
  |align=center| '''fuŋga'''
  |align=center| to fasten, to lock
  |align=center| '''fuŋgua'''
  |align=center| to unfasten, to unlock
  |-
  |align=center| '''benda'''
  |align=center| to assemble, to put together
  |align=center| '''bendua'''
  |align=center| to take apart, to disassemble
  |-
  |align=center| '''pauca'''
  |align=center| to stop up, to block
  |align=center| '''paucua'''
  |align=center| to unstop
  |-
  |align=center| '''sensa'''
  |align=center| to weave
  |align=center|  '''sensua'''
  |align=center| to unravel
  |-
  |align=center| '''fiŋka'''
  |align=center| to put on clothes, to dress
  |align=center| '''fiŋkua'''
  |align=center| to undress
  |-
  |align=center| '''tasta'''
  |align=center| to tangle
  |align=center|  '''tastua'''
  |align=center| to untangle
    |}


Note that in any other form but the '''geladi''', the '''u''' changes to a '''w'''. For example ;-
c) As a consequence of a) and b), the object is more likely to be human as you go down the continuum.


'''fiŋkwori''' = he undressed
'''béu''' considers it good style to drop as many arguments as possible. In '''béu''' all the verbs along this continuum are considered transitive. Quite often one or both arguments are dropped, but of course are known through context. If the O argument is dropped it could be known because it was the previously declared topic (however more often the A argument is the topic tho', and hence dropped, represented by '''swe''' tho' as its case marking can not be dropped), it could be because the verb is from the top end of the continuum and the action is the important thing and the O argument or arguments just not important, or the dropped argument could be interpreted as "something" or "somebody", or it could be a definite thing that can be identified by the discouse that the clause is buried in.


==Index==
==Index==


{{Béu Index}}
{{Béu Index}}

Revision as of 13:12, 9 April 2013

..... Word order and definiteness

An interesting concept. The English language usage is;-

1) unknown to speaker and listener ... "I want to buy a dog"

2) known to speaker but unknown to listener ... "I read a book yesterday" ..... however if the speaker is going to reveal more about "book" he would say "I read this book yesterday"

3) unknown to speaker but known to listener ... "that dog that bit you yesterday was put down" .... or equally valid ... "the dog that bit you yesterday was put down"

The question here is, of course, if the dog is "totally" unknown to the speaker ... why is here speaking about it ... ah, we must go deeper

4) known to speaker and listener ... "I read the Bible yesterday"

Or consider this Norwegian, getting more definite in six easy steps.

5) She wants to marry a Norwegian ............. Could be any Norwegian. "She" does not even have any definite Norwegian in mind.

6) She wants to marry a Norwegian ............. Unknown to speaker and listener. But "she" has her eye on a particular Noggie.

7) She wants to marry some Norwegian ..... Not any Norwegian but the speaker known very little about him and the listener nothing.

8) She wants to marry a Norwegian** ........ Known to speaker but unknown to listener

9) She wants to marry this Norwegian ........ Known to speaker but unknown to listener

10) She wants to marry that Norwegian ....... Known to speaker and listener

9) and 10) can be said to be "half-definite" (my own term) The Norwegian is known but as a sort of peripheral character that hasn't as yet impinged on the consciousness* of the interlocutors that much. As/if he becomes more into focus in the interlocutors lives he will, of course, become, the Norwegian (or more probably Oddgeir or Roar or what have you).

11) She wants to marry the Norwegian ... As definite as you can get, I guess.

The use of this and that for "half-definite" makes sense ... it is iconic. "This thing" is near the speaker hence seen, touched, smelt by the speaker ... known to the speaker.

"That thing" is out in the open, hence experienced/known to both speaker and listener.

*Or the world-model that we each build up inside our heads.

**Notice that "She wants to marry a Norwegian" is ambiguous ... it could either have the implications of either 5), 6) or 8).

But enough of English. béu makes a noun more definite by putting it further to the left. To have an obligatory a or the in front of every noun is wasteful. However non-obligatory particles (such as "some" are fine)

Basically if a noun or noun phrase is to the left of the verb* it is definite, if it is to the right it is indefinite. For example ;-

báus timpori glà = The man hit a woman

glà timpori báus = A man hit the woman

However this rule does not effect proper names and pronouns. They are always definite so they can wonder anywhere in the clause and it doesn't make any difference.

*When I say verb here I am not counting the three copula's. They always have the order

Copula-subject copula copula-complement

Also dependent clauses have fixed word order ???

..... Adjectives and how they pervade other parts of speech

Earlier on in this chapter we discussed parts of speech. In béu, sometimes, an unmodified word can belong to 2 or 3 different parts of speech at once.

Also earlier on I introduced the gomua (G) or the infinitive, as a part of speech. This is the "base form" of the verb and it resembles a noun in many respects. It is being treated as a seperate part of speech ... just for convenience really. I do not want to get into an argument about linguistic theories etc. etc. This is just to make things easy to discuss.

Let us start of with a single-syllable adjective. Let us see what forms a single-syllable adjective can take and what "parts of speech" these forms can belong to. Consider the word gèu "green" ;-


TW 158.png

Along the top of the above chart you can see N, A, V and G (noun, adjective, verb and gomua).

The form under these 4 headings, shows the form gèu takes when it is one of these 4 parts of speech. gèu is fundamentally an adjective (that is what the thicker border around the "A" means).

You can see that we have two nouns forms in the above chart. One has its original form, I call this one "the substansive noun" (meaning "the green one"). The other changes its form by taking the affix -n. I call this one "the qualitative noun" (meaning "greenness").

We can see that we can derive a verb from gèu. By affixing -s we get an transitive verb meaning "to make green". You can see that the V-forms and the G-forms are the same.

Actually the V-form is not gèus. The V-form is actually a myriad of forms. But they are all built up from the gèus foundations. As an example let us build up one of the myriad of forms that the V-form can take. First we add a vowel, either a, i, o, u, e, au or ai, that represents the subject ... then we add, either r, n or s (depending on if we want the indicative mood, the subjunctive nood or the imperative) ... then we add a vowel (or consonant + vowel) as a tense/aspect marker, either ??? ... then we possibly add an evidential marker, either n, s or a. So we could get geus + i + r + i +a => geuʃiria = "you became green, I saw it" ... one of the many forms considered as a V-form.

OK. We have seen how a single-syllable adjective works. Now for a 2-syllable adjective. Consider the word naike "sharp" ;-


TW 159.png

We can see that in this case it is possible to have 3 parts of speech from only one form. However in this case the "finite" verb (V) is built up directly from naike and not from the G-form. So, for example, we have naikiria = "you sharpened (it), I saw you do it". Rather than *naikeʃiria.

..... Verbs and how they pervade other parts of speech

TW 85.png


TW 86.png

slaii is pronounced as two syllables ... as you would say "sly "e" " ... glottal stop between the syllables ... quite easy to say.

slaianais pronounced as three syllables ... slai ... a ... na ... also easy to say.

................. Nouns and how they pervade other parts of speech

nambo

TW 89.png

nambo meaning house is a fairly typical non-single-syllable noun and we can use it to demonstrate how béu generates other words from nouns.

nambodu

Not many nouns can be used as verbs. However when an action is associated to a certain noun, usually, with no change of form, it can be used as a verb. For example lotova means bicycle and you get lotovarwi meaning "I used to ride my bicycle". For the infinitive, du must be affixed to the basic form.

The meaning given to the verb nambo is arrived at through metaphor, it is not so straight forward as the bicycle example.

The use of all tools can be expressed in a similar manner to lotova.

nambon

Sometimes in English a bare noun can be used to qualify another noun (i.e. it can act as an adjective). For example in the phrase "history teacher", "history" has the roll usually performed by an adjective ... for example, "the sadistic teacher". This can never happen in béu, the noun must undergo some sort of change. The most common change for nambo is it to change into its genitive form nambon as in pintu nambon "the door of the house". Other changes that can occur are the affixation of -go or -ka. These are used with certain nouns more than others. They are not used that much with the noun nambo so I haven't included them in the chart above. You could use the forms nambogo or namboka if you wanted tho' (they would mean "house-like"). Maybe you would use one of these terms in a joke ... it would stike the listener as slightly odd however.

nambia

This is a very common derivation. Nearly all nouns can take this transformation.

nambia is an adjective meaning "having a home". And its use as a noun is quite common as well, in which case it would probably be translater as "a home owner"

nambua

Also a very common derivation. The opposite of nambia.

nambua means homeless or the homeless

Note that although ia and ua are exact opposites, the usage of the words produced from these affixes do not completely mirror each other. It all depends oner what the base word is.

For example, in this case, the form nambia is a bit rarer than nambia. Also nambua is used more often as an adjective than as a noun, while nambia is used more often as a noun than an adjective.

nambuma

Many of the worlds languages have a suffix that has this roll. Called an "augmentative" in the Western linguistic tradition. Does not really come into play in English but quite common in béu. As well as some basic forms that appear regularly in their augmentative version, any noun can receive this affix. But of course it will stick out if it is not commonly used.

nambita

The opposite of nambuma. Called an "diminutive" in the Western linguistic tradition. In béu it is often used to show that the speaker feels affection for the noun so transformed. There is no trace of the opposite for the augmentative : nobody would use the augmentative to show repulsion.

nambwan

The form changes that produce nambia, nambua, nambuma, nambita, *nambija are *nambeba affected by deleting the final vowel (or diphthong) and then adding the relevant affix. However with this change of form this is not always possible to delete the final vowel (example). In this example it is possible. In fact it is possible if the final consonant of the base word is j, b, g, d,c, s, k, t, l or m.

wan is affixed to a few nouns, a few adjectives plus a few. Its has the sense of "tending towards","accustomed to" or "addicted to".

ái white aiwan faded
lozo grey lozwan grizzled
pà I pawan selfish
mama mother mamwan motherbound
nambo house nambwan domesticated
toili book toilwan bookish

By the way nambwan means domestic or domesticated. Nearly always when you come across the word it is referring to animals.

Other derivations that are not possible with nambo

I have already mentioned nambogo and namboka which while possible, are not at all common. Also I will mention three other derivations that are quite common however can not occur with nambo.

1) -ija is affixed to the names of animals and give a word meaning the young of that animal. For example;-

huvu = sheep

huvija = lamb

mèu = cat

meuja = kitten

2) -eba is an affix that produces a word meaning "a set of something" where the base word is considered as a central/typical member of that set. For example;-

baiʔo = spoon

baiʔeba = cutlery

= chair

= furniture

nambeba could represent a set comprising (houses, huts, skyscrapers, apartment buildings, government buildings etc etc.), however this is already covered by bundo (derived from the verb bunda "to build").

3) -we ... Well the status of this one can be analysed in two ways. It could be said to be the same as the affixes mentioned above. An affix that generates an adverb* with the meaning "to act in the manner of xxxx". OK the nouns that are used with this affix tend to do something (to move) and as houses do not do much, I can not demonstrate using nambo.

Let us take deuta meaning "soldier". The word deutawe would be an adverb meaning "in the manner of a soldier". Note that if this is an affix. it has the form CV and hence does not overwrite the final vowel of the base word (unlike the other affixes).

An alternative way to look at this is a result of the "word-building" process (see section ???)

wé deutan means "way of a soldier" or "manner of a soldier".

Now if we follow the "word-building rules"

1) The genitive suffix n is dropped

2) The first syllable of the first word is dropped.

3) The remainder of the first word is affixed to the second word.

We get the form deutawe (wé being monosyllabic, we obviously can not delete its first syllable)

Probably the first analysis is correct, and we should keep fé deutan as a noun phrase, and deutawe as an adverb.

* I haven't mentioned adverbs before. They are a separate part of speech, but a part of speech that has a very marginal roll. For the most part, adverbs are the same as adjectives.

báu

TW 88.png

..... A bit about adverbs

If an adjective comes immediately after a verb (which it normally would) it is known to be an adverb. For example saco means "slow" but if it came immediately after a verb it would be translated as "slowly". However if we add -ve to it so we get the form sacowe the adverb can move around the utterance ... wherever it wants to go.

-we can also be affixed to a noun and also produce an adverb. For example ;-

deuta means "soldier"

deutawe means "in the manner of a soldier"

as in doikora deutawe = he walk like a soldier

So that is basically all there is to adverbs. In the Western linguistic tradition many other words are classified as adverbs. Words such as "often" and "tomorrow" etc. etc.

In the béu linguistic tradition all these words are classified as particles, a hodge podge collection of words that do not fit into the classes of noun (N), adjective (A), verb (G) or adverb.

..... Number of categories

So now we can say, béu has ...

1 wepua

2 mazeba .......................... and 2 demonstratives

3 plova ......... participles ........ ʔinʔanandau or whatever words

4 teŋko ........ evidentials ........ relativizers or ʔasemo-marker

5 seŋgeba ..... modals ..... and 5 specifyana

6 ʔanandau ... question words

7 cenʔo ......... subject marked on the verb

9 ??? .............. personal pronouns

12 pilana (noun cases),

15 "specified"

16 gwoma (tense/aspect verbal affixes).

best to have 10 ??? conjunctions ???

The complement clause construction ???

wí = to see polo = Paul timpa = to hit jene = Jenny

wori polo timpa andai = He saw paul hitting something

wori pá timpana ó = He saw me hitting her

wori jene bwò timpa = He saw Jenny being hit

wori polo timpa jene = He saw Paul hitting Jenny

wori pà timpa jene = He saw me hitting Jenny.

In the above constructions the word order must be as shown above.

..... The transitivity of verbs in béu

All languages have a Verb class, generally with at least several hundred members.

Leaving aside copula clauses, there are two recurrent clause types, transitive and intransitive. Verbs can be classified according to the clause type they may occur in: (a) Intransitive verbs, which may only occur in the predicate of an intransitive clause; for example, "snore" in English. (b) Transitive verbs, which may only occur in the predicate of a transitive clause; for example, "hit" in English. In some languages, all verbs are either strictly intransitive or strictly transitive. But in others there are ambitransitive (or labile) verbs, which may be used in an intransitive or in a transitive clause. These are of two varieties: (c) Ambitransitives of type S = A. An English example is "knit", as in "SheS knits" and "SheA knits socksO". (d) Ambitransitives of type S = O. An English example is "melt", as in "The butterS melted" and "SheA melted the butterO".

English verbs can be divided into the four types mentioned above. béu verbs however can only be divided into two types, a) Intransitive, and b) Transitive. In this section it will be shown how the four English types of verb map into the two béu types. (Of course there is nothing special or unique about English ... other than the fact that a reader of this grammatical sketch will already be familiar with English)

Intransitive

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An intransitive verb in English => an intransitive verb in béu

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An example of an intransitive verb in English is "laugh". This is also an intransitive verb in béu. In a clause containing an intransitive verb, the only argument that you have is the S argument.

By the way ... some concepts that are adjectives in English are primarily intransitive verbs in béu, for example ;- to be angry, to be sick, to be healthy etc. etc.

Ambitransitive of type S=O

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x) An intransitive in béu
An "ambitransitive of type S=O" => y) A pair of verbs, one being intransitive and one being transitive
z) A transitive in béu

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x) "Ambitransitive verbs of type S=O" which have greater frequency in intransitive clauses, are intransitive verbs in béu.

For example ;- flompe = to trip, (ò)S flomporta = She has tripped

y) "Ambitransitive of type S=O" verbs which are frequent in both transitive and intransitive clauses, are represented as a pair of verbs in béu, one of which is intransitive and one transitive. There are a few hundred béu verbs that come in pairs like this. One should not be thought of as derived from the other; each form should be considered equally fundamental. All the pairs have the same form, except the transitive one has an extra "l" before its final consonant.

For example hakori kusoniS = his chair broke : (pás)A halkari kusoniO = I broke his chair :

z) "Ambitransitive of type S=O" verbs which have greater frequency in transitive clauses, are transitive vebs in béu.

For example ;- nava = to open, (pás)A navaru pintoO = I am going to open the door

Ambitransitive verbs of type S=A and Transitive verbs

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An "ambitransitive of type S=A"
or => A transitive in béu
A transitive verb in English

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I am taking transitive and ambitransitive of type (S=A) together as I consider them to be basically the same thing but tending to opposite ends of a continuum.

Consider the illustration below.

At the top (with the "objects easily guessed") are verbs that are normally designated "ambitransitive of type S=A".

At the bottom (with the "objects could be anything") are verbs that are normally designated "transitive".

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TW 20.png

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Considering the top first. One can have "IA eat applesO" or we can have "IS eat"

Then considering the bottom. One can have "IA hit JaneO" but you can not have "*IS hit"

Moving up from the bottom. One can imagine a situation, for example when showing a horse to somebody for the first time when you would say "SheS kicks". While this is possible to say this, it is hardly common.

As we go from the top to the bottom of the continuum;-

a) The semantic area to which the object (or potential object if you will) gets bigger and bigger.

b) At the bottom end the object becomes is more unpedictable and hence more pertinent.

c) As a consequence of a) and b), the object is more likely to be human as you go down the continuum.

béu considers it good style to drop as many arguments as possible. In béu all the verbs along this continuum are considered transitive. Quite often one or both arguments are dropped, but of course are known through context. If the O argument is dropped it could be known because it was the previously declared topic (however more often the A argument is the topic tho', and hence dropped, represented by swe tho' as its case marking can not be dropped), it could be because the verb is from the top end of the continuum and the action is the important thing and the O argument or arguments just not important, or the dropped argument could be interpreted as "something" or "somebody", or it could be a definite thing that can be identified by the discouse that the clause is buried in.

Index

  1. Introduction to Béu
  2. Béu : Chapter 1 : The Sounds
  3. Béu : Chapter 2 : The Noun
  4. Béu : Chapter 3 : The Verb
  5. Béu : Chapter 4 : Adjective
  6. Béu : Chapter 5 : Questions
  7. Béu : Chapter 6 : Derivations
  8. Béu : Chapter 7 : Way of Life 1
  9. Béu : Chapter 8 : Way of life 2
  10. Béu : Chapter 9 : Word Building
  11. Béu : Chapter 10 : Gerund Phrase
  12. Béu : Discarded Stuff
  13. A statistical explanation for the counter-factual/past-tense conflation in conditional sentences
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