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User:Masako/nkala: Difference between revisions

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==Nouns==
=== Affect / Degree ===
* The diminutive is formed with '''-hi''', and the augmentative with '''-ha'''.
These are respectively realized as '''-ki''' and '''-ka''' when attached to a word that has a final syllable containing '''h''' or '''y'''.
:Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
:Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''tsakahi''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion
* These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
:Example : '''yanahi''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green
* In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
:Example : '''tahaka''' - bigger/biggest | '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka''' - His house is bigger than mine.
:Example : '''yanaha''' - more yellow/most yellow | '''ke huam tayo yanaha''' - Your flowers are the most yellow.
===Gender===
*In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings '''-ta''' and '''-na'''.
:Example : '''nikata''' "a male dog", '''nikana''' "a female dog".
=== Articles ===
*There is only one article in '''Kala''', '''ke'''. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".
*It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
:Example : '''kama''' "village", '''ke kama''' "the/a village", '''ke kama'a''' "the villages"
:Example : '''inahi''' "snack", '''ke inahi''' "the/a snack", '''ke inahim''' "the snacks"
===Number===
* Nouns are either singular, plural or collective.
* Concrete nouns are pluralized by suffixing '''-m'''.
:Examples :  '''kono''' - stone > '''konom''' - stones | '''naka''' - woman > '''nakam''' - women
* When the last syllable of a word contains an '''m''', the plural is marked by reduplicating the final vowel.
:Examples : '''kama''' - village > '''kama'a''' - villages | '''teyemi''' - phrase > '''teyemi'i''' - phrases
* Collective (plural) nouns are marked by prefixing '''tli-'''.
:Examples : '''tsaka''' - house > '''tlitsaka''' - neighborhood | '''yama''' - mountain > '''tliyama''' - mountain range
* Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
:Example : '''sahi''' - color > '''sahim''' - colors > '''sahi ya'o''' - five color(s)
* Adjectives do not show plural agreement. However, when an adjective is used nominally, it can be pluralized.
:Example : '''nyeli''' - pink > '''nyelim''' - (the) pink (ones)
==Pronouns==
* [[Kala]] generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
{| class="wikitable" border=1
|-
! !! ''Nominative'' !! ''Accusative'' !! ''Possessive'' !! ''Reflexive'' !! ''Reciprocal''
|- align=center
! ''1S''
|| na || ena || nayo || na'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''2S''
|| ta || eta ||tayo || ta'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''3S''
|| ha || eha || hayo || ha'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''4S''
|| tla || etla || tlayo || tla'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''1P''
|| nam || enam || namyo || nami || nanku
|- align=center
! ''1P'' (EXCL)
|| na'am || ena'am || na'amyo || na'ami || na'anku
|- align=center
! ''2P''
|| tam || etam || tamyo || tami || tanku
|- align=center
! ''3P''
|| kam || ekam || kamyo || kami || kanku
|- align=center
! ''4P''
|| tlam || etlam || tlamyo || tlami || tlanku
|-
|}
=== Correlative Pronouns ===
[http://www.kwesho.com/aboka.html sketch]
==Verbs==
===tense / aspect===
The future tense is marked with the suffix '''-tli'''. Past tenses, including perfect and
pluperfect, are marked with the suffix '''-ye'''. The present tense is unmarked:
* '''na ina''' - <tt>1.S eat</tt> - I eat / I am eating.
* '''na inatli''' - <tt>1.S eat.FUT</tt> - I will eat / I am about to eat.
* '''na inaye''' - <tt>1.S eat.PAST</tt> - I eat / I was eating / I have eaten / I had eaten.
[[Kala]] does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. ‘I ate’, ‘I used to eat’, ‘I
have eaten’, ‘I had eaten’). However, one can easily clarify the temporal sequence of two actions by
marking the earlier one with the adverbial '''tsa''' (‘already’).
===mood===
* The conditional mood is formed with the particle '''iya'''.
* '''iya na ina''' - <tt>COND 1.S eat</tt> - I might be eating.
* The imperative mood is formed with the particle '''kya'''.
* '''kya ina''' - <tt>IMP eat</tt> - Eat!
* The negative mood is formed with the suffix '''-k'''.
* '''na inak''' - <tt>1.S eat.NEG</tt> - I do not eat / I am not eating.
* The volitive mood is formed with the suffix '''-ue''' (from '''ueha''' - to want, desire).
* '''na inaue''' - <tt>1.S eat.VOL</tt> - I want to eat.
* The necessitative mood is formed with the suffix '''-he''' (from '''heya''' - to need, require).
* '''na inahe''' - <tt>1.S eat.NEC</tt> - I need to eat.
* The abilitative mood is formed with the suffix '''-pa''' (from '''pala''' - to be able).
* '''na inapa''' - <tt>1.S eat.ABIL</tt> - I am able to eat./ I can eat.
===voice===
* The passive voice is formed by attaching the accusative prefix '''e-''' to the pronoun.
* '''ena ina''' - <tt>ACC.1.S eat</tt> - I am eaten. / I am being eaten.
==Numbers==
===Cardinal Numbers===
*'''e'o''' - zero / nothing
*'''na'o''' - one
*'''ta'o''' - two
*'''ha'o''' - three
*'''ma'o''' - four
*'''ya'o''' - five
*'''tsa'o''' - six
*'''ka'o''' - seven
*'''pa'o''' - eight
*'''sa'o''' - nine
*'''ue'o''' - ten
*'''nye'o''' - (one) hundred
*'''tle'o''' - (one) thousand
*'''mue'o''' - ten thousand
*'''kye'o''' - (one) hundred thousand
*'''nte'o''' - (one) million
=== Higher Numbers ===
* '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
* '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
* '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
* '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') | '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
* '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
===Ordinal Numbers===
* '''ki'''- - ordinal prefix
:Example : '''kisa'o''' - ninth (in a sequence)
:Example : '''kiyanyepa'o''' - 508<sup>th</sup>
===Fractions===
* '''i'''- - fractional prefix
:Example : '''isa'o''' - a ninth, 1/9
:Example : '''iha'o te pa'o''' - three eighths, 3/8 [lit: a third of eight]
= outline =
= outline =


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== allophony ==
== allophony ==
*<tt>/ʔ/</tt> is not phonemic and only occurs between non-diphthong vowel pairs.
*''/ʔ/'' is not phonemic and only occurs between non-diphthong vowel pairs.
*<tt>/h/ > [ɦ]</tt> when immediately preceded or followed by  <tt>/e i/</tt>.
*''/h/ > [ɦ]'' when immediately preceded or followed by  ''/e i/''.
*<tt>/s/ > [ʃ]</tt> except when preceded or followed by onset <tt>/tʃ/</tt>
*''/s/ > [ʃ]'' except when preceded or followed by onset ''/tʃ/''


== phonotactics ==
== phonotactics ==
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* In Kala, almost every consonant can be prenasalized, but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized, while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases  of [[syllabic]] /n/ or /m/.
* In Kala, almost every consonant can be prenasalized, but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized, while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases  of [[syllabic]] /n/ or /m/.


* '''mp''' <tt>/ᵐp~ᵐb/<tt>
* '''mp''' ''/ᵐp~ᵐb/''
:Example: '''mpaka''' <tt>/ˈᵐpa.ka/ - ''n'' - boundary; border; line
:Example: '''mpaka''' ''/ˈᵐpa.ka/ - ''n'' - boundary; border; line
* '''nt''' <tt>/ⁿt~ⁿd/<tt>
* '''nt''' ''/ⁿt~ⁿd/''
:Example: '''ntama''' <tt>/ˈⁿta.ma/<tt> - ''n'' - calf (a young cow or bull)
:Example: '''ntama''' ''/ˈⁿta.ma/'' - ''n'' - calf (a young cow or bull)
* '''nk''' <tt>/ᵑk~ᵑ/<tt>
* '''nk''' ''/ᵑk~ᵑ/''
:Example: '''nkapa''' <tt>/ˈᵑka.pa/<tt> - ''n'' - alcohol; grog
:Example: '''nkapa''' ''/ˈᵑka.pa/'' - ''n'' - alcohol; grog


= nouns =
= nouns =
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== interrogative and relative pronouns ==
== interrogative and relative pronouns ==


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:900px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:700px;"
| || ''query'' || ''proximal'' || ''medial'' || ''distal'' || ''indefinite'' || ''negative'' || ''ambiguous'' || ''universal'' || ''generalized''
| || ''query'' || ''proximal'' || ''medial'' || ''distal'' || ''indefinite'' || ''negative'' || ''ambiguous'' || ''universal'' || ''generalized''
|-
|-
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* To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and '''ka''' is placed at the end. Example:
* To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and '''ka''' is placed at the end. Example:


* '''tam yala''' - <tt>2PL go</tt> - You all are going.
* '''tam yala''' - ''2PL go'' - You all are going.
: '''ama tam yala ka''' - <tt>time 2PL go Q</tt> - When are you going?
: '''ama tam yala ka''' - ''time 2PL go Q'' - When are you going?

Revision as of 12:08, 3 January 2013

outline

For instance, in

아이들이 김에게 빵을 많이 주었어요
ai tuli kimuy key-0 ppang ul-0 manhi-0 cwue-ss-e-0
aideuri gimege bbangeul manhi jueosseo
child-pl-nom Kim-to bread-acc a_lot give-pret-int,

Tul could also occur at any of the 0's. If it did, it would not be redundant with the plural marking on the subject. For example, in,

Kala

phonology

  • Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.

consonants

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stops p~b (p) t~d (t) k~g (k) ʔ (')
Fricatives s (s) ʃ (s) h~ɦ (h)
Affricates t͡ɬ (tl) / t͡s (ts) t͡ʃ (ts)
Approximants w (u) l~r (l) j (y)
Nasals m (m) n (n) ɲ (ny)

vowels

Front Central Back
Close i (i) u (u)
Mid e (e) o (o)
Open a (a)

diphthongs

  • Both of the falling diphthongs as well as uai and yao only occur word finally.

falling

  • [aɪ~aɪ:] - ai
  • [aʊ~aʊ:] - ao

rising

  • [wa~wa:] - ua
  • [waɪ~waɪ:] - uai
  • [ja~ja:] - ya
  • [jaʊ~jaʊ:] - yao
  • [je~je:] - ye
  • [jo~jo:] - yo

allophony

  • /ʔ/ is not phonemic and only occurs between non-diphthong vowel pairs.
  • /h/ > [ɦ] when immediately preceded or followed by /e i/.
  • /s/ > [ʃ] except when preceded or followed by onset /tʃ/

phonotactics

  • Kala phonotactics does not allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized.
  • Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a morpheme.

syllable structure

  • (N)(C)V/D(F)
    • N - nasal; prenasal; /n/ or /m/
    • C - consonant
    • V - vowel
    • D - diphthong
    • F - final; coda
  • The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/; these only occur as a final codas to negate, pluralize or adverbialize verbs and nouns, respectively.

stress

  • In Kala stress falls on the penultimate syllable with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is ultimate.

prenasalized consonants

  • In Kala, almost every consonant can be prenasalized, but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized, while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases of syllabic /n/ or /m/.
  • mp /ᵐp~ᵐb/
Example: mpaka /ˈᵐpa.ka/ - n - boundary; border; line
  • nt /ⁿt~ⁿd/
Example: ntama /ˈⁿta.ma/ - n - calf (a young cow or bull)
  • nk /ᵑk~ᵑ/
Example: nkapa /ˈᵑka.pa/ - n - alcohol; grog

nouns

plurality

  • A countable noun (or "count noun") can be modified by a number, and can accept the plural. Typical countable nouns represent objects that are clearly individual entities, such as houses, cats, and thoughts. For example:
root usage example
-m ma general plural tsakam
houses
-mha ma + -ha indefinite abundance tsakamha
many/a lot houses
-mi ma + -hi indefinite insufficiency tsakami
few houses
tli- collective plural tlikuma
sleuth of bears
-lo ma alternative to -m yamalo
mountains
  • When modified by a number, general plurals need not be marked. Example:
tsaka ta'o - Two houses.

gender

  • Nouns do not normally indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, the suffixes -ta and -na are used:
  • uma - horse
umata - a male horse, a stallion
umana - a female horse, a mare

noun phrases

pronouns

  • Kala generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
  • There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
Nominative Accusative Possessive Reflexive Reciprocal
1S na ena nayo na'i
2S ta eta tayo ta'i
3S ha eha hayo ha'i
4S tla etla tlayo tla'i
1P nam enam namyo nami nanku
1P (EXCL) na'am ena'am na'amyo na'ami na'anku
2P tam etam tamyo tami tanku
3P kam ekam kamyo kami kanku
4P tlam etlam tlamyo tlami tlanku

determiners

  • itla, itlam – this, these (near speaker)
  • uatla, uatlam – that, those (near listener)
  • yetla, yetlam – that, those (away from speaker and listener)
  • ua, uam – other, others
  • ula, ote – any, whichever, whatever
  • – each
  • iha – some
  • amha – much, many
  • ahi – little, few
  • maha – more, most
  • ohi – fewer, less, fewest, least
  • kua – all
  • yema – both

interrogative and relative pronouns

query proximal medial distal indefinite negative ambiguous universal generalized
adjective ote
which		 itla
this		 uatla
that		 yetla
that (there)		 iha
some		 -k
none		 ula
any		 kua
every		 ote
whichever
person ko
who		 iko
this person		 uako
that person		 yeko
that person (there)		 hyako
someone		 tlok
no one		 kola
anyone		 tlokua
everyone		 teko
who(m)ever
thing ke
what		 itla
this		 uatla
that		 yetla
that (there)		 hyano
something		 nok
no thing		 nola
anything		 nokua
everything		 ote
whatever
time ama
when		 ima
now		 uama
then		 yeme
then (yon)		 hyama
sometime		 amak
never		 tlama
anytime		 kuama
always		 tema
whenever
place mo
where		 hina
here		 uana
there		 yemo
there (away)		 hyamo
somewhere		 mok
nowhere		 mola
anywhere		 mokua
everywhere		 temo
wherever
way to
how		 yoto
thus		 hyato
somehow		 tok
no way		 heto
however
amount uku
how many		 ok
none		 teku
however much/many
reason nye
why		 tenye
whyever
  • To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and ka is placed at the end. Example:
  • tam yala - 2PL go - You all are going.
ama tam yala ka - time 2PL go Q - When are you going?
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