Chinese sound correspondences: Difference between revisions

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* "Independent" rimes, limited to coming after labials and velars/laryngeals, with a tendency to merge with other, more fully distributed rimes
* "Independent" rimes, limited to coming after labials and velars/laryngeals, with a tendency to merge with other, more fully distributed rimes
* "Mixed" rimes, with a more complete distribution after several series of onset consonants;
* "Mixed" rimes, with a more complete distribution after several series of onset consonants;
* "Chongniu" rimes. These rimes are distributed widely just liked "mixed" rimes. Furthermore, a distinction referred to as ''chongniu'' (重紐) was made among characters with labial or velar/laryngeal onsets. The nature of this distinction is unknown but it was likely phonemic. The two categories are, confusingly, called "division-three chongniu rimes" and "division-four chongniu rimes", based on their placement in rime books, even though the rimes themselves are division-three (do not confuse with division-four rimes). The distinction is represented in Baxter's orthography with an extra -i- or -j- for those characters in division-four chongniu.
* "Chongniu" rimes. These rimes are distributed widely just liked "mixed" rimes. Furthermore, a distinction referred to as ''chongniu'' (重紐) was made among characters with labial or velar/laryngeal onsets. The nature of this distinction is unknown but it was likely phonemic. The two categories can be referred to as type A and type B. (They are also, confusingly, called "division-four chongniu rimes" and "division-three chongniu rimes", based on their placement in rime books, even though the rimes themselves are division-three (do not confuse with ''actual'' division-four rimes).) The distinction is represented in Baxter's orthography with an extra -i- or -j- for those characters in chongniu type A rimes.


Like modern Cantonese, MC permitted the consonant codas of -p, -t, -k, -m, -n and -ng. Baxter also uses the notations of -wk and -wng in a few rimes, which might reflect MC phonology. In MC, rimes ending on stops (-ap, -at, -ak) are treated as belonging to the corresponding rimes ending on nasals (-am, -an, -ang).
Like modern Cantonese, MC permitted the consonant codas of -p, -t, -k, -m, -n and -ng. Baxter also uses the notations of -wk and -wng in a few rimes, which might reflect MC phonology. In MC, rimes ending on stops (-ap, -at, -ak) are treated as belonging to the corresponding rimes ending on nasals (-am, -an, -ang).
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* -p, -t and -k rimes are implied for -m, -n and -ng rimes, respectively.
* -p, -t and -k rimes are implied for -m, -n and -ng rimes, respectively.
* The pair of 嚴 -jæm and 凡 -jom, which are classified as ''kaikou'' and ''hekou'' respectively, are actually in complementary distribution, the former coming after velar onsets and the latter after labial onsets.
* The pair of 嚴 -jæm and 凡 -jom, which are classified as ''kaikou'' and ''hekou'' respectively, are actually in complementary distribution, the former coming after velar onsets and the latter after labial onsets.
* Baxter analyzes the rimes of 庚 jæng and 清 jeng as forming a chongniu third-division / chongniu fourth-division pair. He also classifies 幽 iw rimes as a "chongniu" type rime that has only fourth-division chongniu characters in it, though the rime books do not show a chongniu contrast in this rime category, on the basis of the placement and description of 幽 iw in the rime books.
* Baxter analyzes the rimes of 庚 jæng and 清 jeng as forming a chongniu type-B / type-A pair. He also classifies 幽 iw rimes as a "chongniu" type rime that has only type-B rimes in it, on the basis of the placement and description of the 幽 iw rime in the rime books.


Permissible onset-rime combinations ("no" does not necessarily mean that there are no characters given in those combinations in the rime books, but that such exceptions are so sparse and/or obscure that they are possibly exceptions/mistakes):
Permissible onset-rime combinations ("no" does not necessarily mean that there are no characters given in those combinations in the rime books, but that such exceptions are so sparse and/or obscure that they are possibly exceptions/mistakes):

Revision as of 22:22, 1 September 2011

This chart strives to document all regular sound correspondences between:

  • Middle Chinese and major modern Chinese languages
  • Middle Chinese and loans in Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese

This chart uses the following default Romanizations:

  • Baxter's orthography, for Middle Chinese
  • Hanyu Pinyin, for Mandarin (Beijing)
  • Jyutping, for Cantonese
  • Pre-1945 kana (歴史的仮名遣い) Romanized in faux-Wāpuro, for Japanese

Onsets

Table of onsets with traditional labels (exemplary characters) and Baxter's notation (actual phonetic values are subject to debate):

幫 p 滂 ph 並 b 明 m
端 t 透 th 定 d 泥 n 來 l
知 tr 徹 trh 澄 dr 娘 nr
精 ts 清 tsh 從 dz 心 s 邪 z
莊 tsr 初 tsrh 崇 dzr 生 sr （俟 zr)
章 tsy 昌 tsyh 常 dzy 日 ny 書 sy 船 zy
見 k 溪 kh 群 g 疑 ng
影 ʔ 以 y 曉 x 匣 h

The tsr- and tsy- rows are traditionally conflated as follows:

照 穿 牀 審 禪
莊 tsr 初 tsrh 崇 dzr 生 sr （俟 zr)
章 tsy 昌 tsyh 船 zy 書 sy 常 dzy

Occurrences of 匣 h before third-division rimes are traditionally conflated with 以 y which occurs only with third-division rimes.

The chart below will use "1" on top of Baxter's notation to show that a certain condition applies only to the Ping tone (e.g. "zi1" means "zi but not ziX and ziH").

  • 1 = Ping tone
  • 2 or X = Shang tone
  • 3 or H = Qu tone
  • 4 = Ru tone
Onset Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese Korean
Karlgren[1] Baxter[2] IPA[3] Go-On Kan-On Middle*[4] Modern
幫 p p [p] b [p]

but p [pʰ]
(迫畔叛佩僕
譜圃瀑蹼)
and m [m] (秘泌)

b [p]

but p [pʰ]
(編遍佩譜圃豹鄙謗)
and m [m] (剝)

p p h [h] h [h] 彆 ㅂ [p] ㅂ [p]

ㅍ [pʰ] /_[a,je,jo,il] etc.

滂 p' ph [pʰ] p [pʰ]

but b [p] (玻繽怖)

p [pʰ]

but b [p] (玻繽品怖坡)

pʰ pʰ h [h] h [h] 漂 ㅍ [pʰ] ㅍ [pʰ]

ㅂ [p] /_ak etc.

並 b' b [b] p [pʰ] /_1

b [p] /_234
but p [pʰ] (佩)

p [pʰ] /_1,

COL2
(棒婢被蚌抱倍蓓)
b [p] /_34,LIT2
but p [pʰ] (佩)

pʰ b b [b] h [h] 步 ㅃ [p'] ㅂ [p]

ㅍ [pʰ] /_[a,je,jo,il] etc.

明 m m [m] m [m]

but w [w] (戊)

m [m] m m m [m] b [b] 彌 ㅁ [m] ㅁ [m]
非* p p [f] f [f] f [f] f f h [h] h [h] 彆 ㅂ [p] ㅂ [p]

ㅍ [pʰ] /_[a,je,jo,il] etc.

敷* p' ph [fʰ] f [f]

but p [pʰ] (捧)

f [f]

but p [pʰ] (捧)

f f h [h] h [h] 漂 ㅍ [pʰ] ㅍ [pʰ]

ㅂ [p] /_ak etc.

奉* b' b [v] f [f] f [f] f or pʰ v b [b] h [h] 步 ㅃ [p'] ㅂ [p]

ㅍ [pʰ] /_[a,je,jo,il] etc.

微* m m [ɱ] w [w]

but m [m] (曼)

m [m] v

but some m

LIT: v

COL: m

m [m] b [b] 彌 ㅁ [m] ㅁ [m]
端 t t [t] d [t]

but n [n] (鳥)

d [t]

but t [tʰ] (禱)
and n [n] (鳥)

t t t [t] t [t] 斗 ㄷ [t] ㄷ [t]
透 t' th [tʰ] t [tʰ] t [tʰ] tʰ tʰ t [t] t [t] 呑 ㅌ [tʰ] ㅌ [tʰ]
定 d' d [d] t [tʰ] /_1

but d [t] (鼕)
d [t] /_234
but t [tʰ]
(挺艇鋌特突
沓蹋袒慟)

t [tʰ] /_1,

COL2
(盾挺艇鋌怠殆肚斷)
but d [t] (鼕)
d [t] /_34,LIT2
but t [tʰ] (袒)

tʰ d d [d] t [t] 覃 ㄸ [t'] ㄷ [t]
泥 n n [n] n [n] n [n] n n n [n] d [d] 那 ㄴ [n] ㄴ [n]
來 l l [l] l [l]

but n [n] (弄)

l [l]

but d [t] (隸)

l l r [ɺ] r [ɺ] 閭 ㄹ [ɾ] ㄹ [ɾ]
知 t̂ tr [ʈ] zh [tʂ]

but ch [tʂʰ] (輟)
and d [t] (爹)

z [ts]

but c [tsʰ] (貯)
and d [t] (涿啄琢爹)

ts ts t [t] t [t] 斗 ㄷ [t] ㄷ [t]
徹 t̂' trh [ʈʰ] ch [tʂʰ]

but zh [tʂ] (祉)

c [tsʰ]

but z [ts] (祉)

tsʰ tsʰ t [t] t [t] 呑 ㅌ [tʰ] ㅌ [tʰ]
澄 d̂' dr [ɖʰ] ch [tʂʰ] /_1

zh [tʂ] /_234
but z [ts] (擇澤)
and ch [tʂʰ] (澈)
and d [t] (瞪)

c [tsʰ] /_1,

COL2 (峙重柱)
z [ts] /_34,LIT2
but c [tsʰ] (澈)
and d [t] (秩)

tsʰ z d [d] t [t] 覃 ㄸ [t'] ㄷ [t]
娘 n nr [ɳ] n [n]

but w [w] (諉)

n [n]

but w [w] (諉)
and j [j] (釀)

n ȵ n [n] d [d] 那 ㄴ [n] ㄴ [n]
精 ts ts [ts] z [ts]

but c [tsʰ] (雀挫)

z [ts]

but c [tsʰ] (挫)

ts ts s [s] s [s] 即 ㅈ [ts] ㅈ [tɕ]
清 ts' tsh [tsʰ] c [tsʰ]

but z [ts] (緝竣)

c [tsʰ]

but z [ts] (竣)

tsʰ tsʰ s [s] s [s] 侵 ㅊ [tsʰ] ㅊ [tɕʰ]
從 dz' dz [dz] c [tsʰ] /_1

but d [t] (蹲)
z [ts] /_234
but c [tsʰ] (攢萃悴瘁)

c [tsʰ] /_1,

COL2 (坐)
z [ts] /_34,LIT2
but c [tsʰ] (攢)
and s [s] (萃悴瘁)

tsʰ z z [z] s [s] 慈 ㅉ [ts'] ㅈ [tɕ]

ㅊ [tɕʰ]

心 s s [s] s [s]

but sh [ʂ] (珊姍)
and c [tsʰ] (賜棲鞘粹)
and z [ts] (燥噪峻)

s [s]

but c [tsʰ]
(棲賽塞速賜肖鞘
燥噪)
and z [ts] (峻)

s s s [s] s [s] 戍 ㅅ [s] ㅅ [s]
邪 z z [z] s [s]

but ∅ (嶼)
and c [tsʰ] in
MC zi1 (詞祠辭)
and MC zjuw1 (囚)

c [tsʰ] /_1,

COL2 (似)
z [ts] /_34,LIT2
but s [s]
(旋羨遂隧殉緒)

s z z [z] s [s] 邪 ㅆ [s'] ㅅ [s]
照莊 tṣ tsr [tʂ] zh [tʂ]

but z [ts]
(阻俎詛鄒責)

z [ts] ts ts s [s] s [s] 即 ㅈ [ts] ㅈ [tɕ]
穿初 tṣ' tsrh [tʂʰ] ch [tʂʰ]

but c [tsʰ]
(策冊測惻廁篡)
and zh [tʂ] (錚)

c [tsʰ]

but z [ts] (錚)
and s [s] (篡)

tsʰ tsʰ s [s] s [s] 侵 ㅊ [tsʰ] ㅊ [tɕʰ]
床崇 dẓ' dzr [dʐʰ] ch [tʂʰ] /_1

but c [ts] (岑)
zh [tʂ] /_234
but sh [ʂ] (士事柿)

c [tsʰ] /_1,

COL2 (柿)
but s [s] (潺愁崇)
z [ts] /_34,LIT2
but s [s] (士事)

tsʰ z z [z] s [s] 慈 ㅉ [ts'] ㅅ [s]

ㅊ [tɕʰ]
ㅈ [tɕ]

審生 ṣ sr [ʂ] sh [ʂ]

but ch [tʂʰ] (產)
and s [s]
(灑澀縮瑟色嗇森)

s [s]

but c [tsʰ] (產刷杉)

s s s [s] s [s] 戍 ㅅ [s] ㅅ [s]
禪俟 ź zr [ʐ] s [s] z [ts] s z z [z] s [s] 邪 ㅆ [s'] ㅅ [s]
照章 tś tsy [tɕ] zh [tʂ]

but ch [tʂʰ] (捶)
and d [t] (盹)

z [ts]

but c [tsʰ] (捶診疹)
and d [t] (盹)

ts ts s [s] s [s] 即 ㅈ [ts] ㅈ [tɕ]
穿昌 tś' tsyh [tɕʰ] ch [tʂʰ]

but sh [ʂ] (樞瀋)

c [tsʰ]

but s [s] (樞瀋)

tsʰ tsʰ s [s] s [s] 侵 ㅊ [tsʰ] ㅊ [tɕʰ]
床船 dź' zy [ʑ] sh [ʂ] /_234

_1:
ch [tʂʰ] (船乘唇)
sh [ʂ] (神繩蛇)

s [s] s z z [z] s [s] 慈 ㅉ [ts'] ㅅ [s]
審書 ś sy [ɕ] sh [ʂ]

but ch [tʂʰ] (弛翅舂)

s [s]

but c [tsʰ]
(始弛矢設束翅奢)
and z [ts] (舂)

s s s [s] s [s] 戍 ㅅ [s] ㅅ [s]
禪常 ź dzy [dʑ] sh [ʂ] /_234

but r [ɻ] (瑞)
_1:
ch [tʂʰ] (most)
sh [ʂ]
(時匙誰韶殊裳)

s [s]

but c [tsʰ] (恃)

s z z [z] s [s] 邪 ㅆ [s'] ㅅ [s]

ㅈ [tɕ]
ㅊ [tɕʰ]

日 ńź ny [ȵ] r [ɻ]

er [aɚ]:
MC nye (兒爾邇)
MC nyij (二貳)
MC nyi (而耳餌)

j [j] ŋ or j z n [n] z [z] 穰 ㅿ [z] ㅇ [∅]
見 k k [k] g [k]

but k [kʰ]
(扛礦昆柯膾愧榷)
and h [x] (梟懈偕)
and w [w] (蝸)

g [k]

but k [kʰ]
(概溉丐給汲級冀規
會膾劊愧拘駒溝箍
羯竭訣決抉蹶厥礦
襟昆)
and h [h] (梟懈)
and w [w] (蝸媧)
and ∅ (柯)

k k k [k] k [k] 君 ㄱ [k] ㄱ [k]
溪 k' kh [kʰ] k [kʰ]

but h [x]
(隙恢詼墟溪)

Random? :

h [h]
or k [kʰ]
but p [pʰ] (棵)
and g [k] (隙)

kʰ kʰ k [k] k [k] 快 ㅋ [kʰ] ㄱ [k]

ㅋ [kʰ] /_[wɛ]

群 g' g [g] k [kʰ] /_1

but g [k] (畿鯨)
g [k] /_234
but k [kʰ] (匱饋)

k [kʰ] /_1,

COL2 (近臼舅菌)
but g [k] (畿)
g [k] /_34,LIT2
but k [kʰ] (匱及)

kʰ g g [ɡ] k [k] 虯 ㄲ [k'] ㄱ [k]
疑 ng ng [ŋ] ∅, y [j,ɥ] or w [w]

depending on rime
but n [n]
(擬孽逆虐凝牛倪霓)
and g [k] (疙圪岌)
and k [kʰ] (聵)
and r [ɻ] (阮)

ng [ŋ]

∅ /_[i,j,w]
ng [ŋ̩]: MC ngu
but k [kʰ] (岌聵)

ŋ ŋ g [ɡ] g [ɡ] 業 ㆁ [ŋ] ㅇ [∅]
影 ' ʔ [ʔ] ∅, y [j,ɥ] or w [w]

depending on rime
but g [k] (娟)
and h [x] (穢)

∅, j [j] or w [w]

depending on rime
but g [k] (娟)
and n [n] (凹)

∅ ∅ ∅, y [j] or w [w]

depending on rime

∅, y [j] or w [w]

depending on rime

挹 ㆆ [ʔ] ㅇ [∅]
曉 x x [h] h [x]

but k [kʰ] (況迄訖)

h [h]

but k [kʰ] (吸賄)
and g [k] (轟)
and ng [ŋ] (迄訖)
and j [j] (欣)

h h k [k] k [k] 虛 ㅎ [h] ㅎ [h]
匣 ɣ h [ɦ] h [x]

but g [k] (迥)
and k [kʰ] (潰洽)
and ∅ (完皖莞肴螢熒)

h [h]

but g [k] (迥)
and k [kʰ] (潰繪攜)
and ng [ŋ] (肴)
and j [j] (螢熒)

h ɦ g [ɡ]

w [w] (蟹攝合口)

k [k] 洪 ㆅ [h'] ㅎ [h]
喻云 j hj [ɦj] y [j,ɥ] or w [w]

depending on rime
but h [x] (彙彗雄熊)

j [j] or w [w]

depending on rime
but h [h] (雄熊)

[j] or [v]? [j] or [v]? y [j] or w [(w)]

depending on rime

欲 ㅇ [∅] ㅇ [∅]
喻以 ∅ y [j] y [j,ɥ] or w [w]

depending on rime
but g [k] (捐)
and k [kʰ] (鉛)

j [j] or w [w]

depending on rime
but g [k] (捐)

[j] or [v]? [j] or [v]? y [j] or w [(w)]

depending on rime

欲 ㅇ [∅] ㅇ [∅]

* — The onsets 幫滂並明 (p ph b m) split sometime between Early and Late Middle Chinese, and this split is reflected in most Chinese varieties as an opposition between bilabials and labiodentals. The characters 非敷奉微 are used to denote the labiodental descendents of original 幫滂並明 respectively. The conditions for the labiodentals are:

  1. The third-division (三等) and hekou (合口, a MC term that seems to refer to labialization) rimes of 虞 ju, 微 jwɨj, 廢 jwojH, 凡 jom, 元 jwon, 文 jun, 陽 jwang, as well as
  2. (Excluding the onset 明 m) The third-division rimes of 東 juwng, 鍾 jowng, 尤 juw

Notes on omitted recent changes, ongoing changes, and allophony

Note for Mandarin — Beijing:

  • The following recent sound changes apply but are omitted to reduce clutter:
    • z c s [ts tsʰ s] > j q x [tɕ tɕʰ ɕ] / _[i,j,y,ɥ]
    • g k h [k kʰ x] > j q x [tɕ tɕʰ ɕ] / _[i,j,y,ɥ]

Note for Yue — Canton (Cantonese):

  • The following (not so) recent sound changes apply but are omitted to reduce clutter:
    • g k [k kʰ] > gw kw [kʷ kʰʷ] / _u ui un ut [uː uːi uːn uːt] (but not ung uk [ʊŋ ʊk])
    • gw kw [kw kʰw] > gw kw [kʷ kʰʷ]
    • For h [h] in the same environment, if h [h] comes from MC 溪 or 曉, then:
      • h [h] > f [f] / _u ui un ut [uː uːi uːn uːt]
      • hw [hw] > f [f]
    • But if h [h] comes from MC 匣, then:
      • h [h] > w [w] / _u ui un ut [uː uːi uːn uːt]
      • hw [hw] > w [w]
    • As can be seen, at least some stage of above change dates from before the merger of [h] and [ɦ] into modern Cantonese [h].
  • Up until the early 20th century, Cantonese had alveolo-palatal sibilants [tɕ tɕʰ ɕ] corresponding to Middle Chinese retroflex and palatal onsets, but these have since merged into the plain alveolar sibilants /ts tsʰ s/.
  • /ts tsʰ s/ may be pronounced palatalized, especially before the front high vowels.
  • The following changes are ongoing:
    • n [n] > l [l] (onset)
    • ng [ŋ], ∅ > [ŋ ~ ∅] (onset)
    • gw kw [kʷ kʰʷ] > g k [k kʰ] / _ong,ok [ɔːŋ ɔːk]
    • ng k [ŋ k] > n t [n t] (coda)
    • ng [ŋ̩] > m [m̩] (syllabic)

Note for Wu — Suzhou:

  • The following recent sound changes apply but are omitted to reduce clutter:
    • [k kʰ g h ɦ n] > [tɕ tɕʰ dʑ ɕ dʑ ȵ] / _[i,j,y,ɥ]

Note for Japanese:

  • The following regular sound changes apply but are omitted to reduce clutter:
    • t d s z n h [t d s z n h] > ch j sh j n h [tɕ ʑ ɕ ʑ ɲ ç] / _[i,j]
    • t d h [t d h] > ts z f [ts z ɸ] / _[u]
    • w [w] > 0 /_[i,e,o]
  • /g/ may be pronounced [ŋ] intervocalically.

Note for Middle Korean: the prescriptive spellings and pronunciations were ultimately ignored:

  • The "muddy" (全濁) onsets were pronounced (and spelt) with plain consonants instead of emphatic consonants;
  • The kh- (溪) onset tended to be pronounced without aspiration;
  • The l- (來) onset was pronounced ㄴ [n] when word-initial (i.e. the first character of a compound) (but see the note below about North Korean);
  • The ny- (日) onset was not pronounced when word-initial;
  • The ng- (疑) onset was not pronounced at all.

Note for Modern Korean:

  • The following regular sound changes apply but are omitted to reduce clutter:
    • ㄷ ㅌ [t tʰ] > ㅈ ㅊ [tɕ tɕʰ] / _[i,j]
    • ㄹ [ɾ] > ㄴ [n] / #_ (reversed due to spelling pronunciation in North Korean)
    • ㄴ [n] > ㅇ Ø / _[i,j]
    • ㅂ ㄷ ㅈ ㄱ ㅅ [p t tɕ k s] > ㅃ ㄸ ㅉ ㄲ ㅆ [p' t' tɕ' k' s'] after consonants (in compounds)

Rimes

MC rimes are traditionally grouped into four divisions (等). The divisions might have had something to do with the vowels and/or medials (semivowels before the main vowel). The divisions are also useful as categories in MC phonotactics. In Baxter's orthography:

  • third-division rimes are written with "i", or with "j" followed by any other vowel;
  • first-division rimes are written with back vowels "a", "o" or "u";
  • second-division rimes are written with low front vowels "æ" or "ɛ" (which had a tendency to merge with each other);
  • fourth-division rimes are written with "e", which later tended to shift to "je" thereby merging with the third-division rimes

Baxter further categorized the large third-division into three categories:

  • "Independent" rimes, limited to coming after labials and velars/laryngeals, with a tendency to merge with other, more fully distributed rimes
  • "Mixed" rimes, with a more complete distribution after several series of onset consonants;
  • "Chongniu" rimes. These rimes are distributed widely just liked "mixed" rimes. Furthermore, a distinction referred to as chongniu (重紐) was made among characters with labial or velar/laryngeal onsets. The nature of this distinction is unknown but it was likely phonemic. The two categories can be referred to as type A and type B. (They are also, confusingly, called "division-four chongniu rimes" and "division-three chongniu rimes", based on their placement in rime books, even though the rimes themselves are division-three (do not confuse with actual division-four rimes).) The distinction is represented in Baxter's orthography with an extra -i- or -j- for those characters in chongniu type A rimes.

Like modern Cantonese, MC permitted the consonant codas of -p, -t, -k, -m, -n and -ng. Baxter also uses the notations of -wk and -wng in a few rimes, which might reflect MC phonology. In MC, rimes ending on stops (-ap, -at, -ak) are treated as belonging to the corresponding rimes ending on nasals (-am, -an, -ang).

Within many of the rime categories, characters were further divided into kaikou (開口) and hekou (合口), which probably referred to the presence of some kind of labialization (denoted as an additional -w- in Baxter's orthography). This distinction was generally neutralized with both labial onsets and labial codas. Instead, rimes with labial codas (in Baxter's orthography, those in -w, -m and -wng) are classified as kaikou. (The pair of 魚 jo and 虞 ju are kaikou and hekou respectively.) Syllables with labial onsets are also put into kaikou or hekou rime categories, but because the distinction is neutralized, if a given kaikou rime occurs with labials, its corresponding hekou rime would (usually) not occur with labials, and vice versa. In particular:

  • In the second and fourth divisions, labial onsets are paired with kaikou rimes
  • In the first division, labial onsets are paired with kaikou rimes, except for 戈 -wa, 灰 -woj, 桓 -wan and 魂 -won.
  • In the third division "independent" category, labial onsets are paired with hekou rimes.
  • In the third division "mixed" category, labial onsets are paired with hekou rimes, except for 之 -i and 蒸 -ing.
  • In the third division "with chongniu" category, labial onsets are paired with kaikou rimes.

The rimes were, later on, grouped into categories called she (攝) based on similarity to each other.

Rimes:

She Name Division One Division Two Division Three Division Four
"Independent" "Mixed" "with Chongniu"
果 Guo 歌 a 歌 ja
戈 wa 戈 jwa
假 Jia 麻 æ 麻 jæ
麻 wæ
止 Zhi jɨj 微 i 之 支 je 脂 ij
jwɨj 微 支 jwe 脂 wij
蟹 Xie 泰 ajH 咍 oj 夬 æjH 皆 ɛj 佳 ɛɨ 廢 jojH 祭 jejH 齊 ej
泰 wajH 灰 woj 夬 wæjH 皆 wɛj 佳 wɛɨ 廢 jwojH 祭 jwejH 齊 wej
遇 Yu 模 u 魚 jo
虞 ju
效 Xiao 豪 aw 肴 æw 宵 jew 蕭 ew
流 Liu 侯 uw 尤 juw 幽 iw
咸 Xian 談 am 覃 om 銜 æm 咸 ɛm 嚴 jæm 鹽 jem 添 em
凡 jom
深 Shen 侵 im
山 Shan 寒 an 刪 æn 山 ɛn 元 jon 仙 jen 先 en
桓 wan 刪 wæn 山 wɛn 元 jwon 仙 jwen 先 wen
臻 Zhen 痕 on 殷 jɨn 真臻 in
魂 won 文 jun 真諄 win
宕 Dang 唐 ang 陽 jang
唐 wang 陽 jwang
曾 Zeng 登 ong 蒸 ing
登 wong 蒸 wing
梗 Geng 庚 æng 耕 ɛng 庚 jæng / 清 jeng 青 eng
庚 wæng 耕 wɛng 庚 jwæng / 清 jweng 青 weng
江 Jiang 江 æwng
通 Tong 東 uwng 冬 owng 東 juwng 鍾 jowng
  • This table is organized according to Baxter's notation. The actual MC vowels continue to be debated.
  • Some rimes occur only in the departing tone (qusheng). These are marked with "-H", Baxter's notation for that tone.
  • -p, -t and -k rimes are implied for -m, -n and -ng rimes, respectively.
  • The pair of 嚴 -jæm and 凡 -jom, which are classified as kaikou and hekou respectively, are actually in complementary distribution, the former coming after velar onsets and the latter after labial onsets.
  • Baxter analyzes the rimes of 庚 jæng and 清 jeng as forming a chongniu type-B / type-A pair. He also classifies 幽 iw rimes as a "chongniu" type rime that has only type-B rimes in it, on the basis of the placement and description of the 幽 iw rime in the rime books.

Permissible onset-rime combinations ("no" does not necessarily mean that there are no characters given in those combinations in the rime books, but that such exceptions are so sparse and/or obscure that they are possibly exceptions/mistakes):

Divisions 1 & 4 Division 2 Division 3 "Independent" Division 3 "Mixed" Division 3 "Chongniu"
Kaikou Hekou Kaikou Hekou Kaikou Hekou Kaikou Hekou Kaikou Hekou
p,ph,b,m Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes + Chongniu
t,th,d,n Yes Some D1 rimes 打 No No No No No 地 No
tr,trh,dr,nr No No Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
l Yes Some D1 rimes 臉、冷 No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
ts,tsh,dz,s Yes Some D1 rimes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
z No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
tsr,tsrh,dzr,sr No No Yes Limited No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
tsy,tsyh,zy,sy,dzy,ny No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
k,kh,x,h,ʔ Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes + Chongniu Yes + Chongniu
g No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes + Chongniu Yes + Chongniu
y No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
  • Division 1 and 4 rimes occurred in similar environments.
  • Division 3 rimes could occur in the most environments, and were also the most frequent (over 50% of characters).
  • The dental stops (t, th, d) were in complementary distribution with the retroflex stops, retroflex sibilants, and palatal sibilants.

Abbreviations used

Onsets:

  • P = MC labial (p,ph,b,m)
  • T = MC dental stop (t,th,d,n)
  • TR = MC retroflex stop (tr,trh,dr,nr)
  • S = MC dental sibilant (ts,tsh,dz,s,z)
  • SR = MC retroflex sibilant (tsr,tsrh,dzr,sr)
  • SY = MC palatal sibilant (tsy,tsyh,dzy,sy,zy)
  • TSR = TR,SR
  • TSRY = TR,SR,SY
  • K = MC velar or laryngeal (k,kh,g,ŋ,x,h,ʔ,y,hj)

Readings:

  • COL = colloquial reading (白讀)
  • LIT = literary reading (文讀)

Chongniu (重紐) classes:

  • CN3 = chongniu three
  • CN4 = chongniu four

Some of the onset-rime combinations attested in rime books correspond to extremely rare characters. Owing to the difficulty of ascertaining the pronunciation of those characters in modern languages, the modern reflexes of those combinations have been omitted (for now). Accordingly, those combinations are not included in the "Distribution" columns of the following charts.

通攝 Tong She

Rime Middle Chinese Distr. Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese Korean
Karlgren Baxter Go-On Kan-On
東一開 ung uwng P T l
S k kh
x h ʔ 		ong [ʊŋ]

weng [wɤŋ] /ʔ_
eng [ɤŋ] /P_

ung [ʊŋ]

but jung [jʊŋ] (翁)

u [u]

some uu [uː]

ou [oː] 옹 [oŋ]
冬一開 uong owng T
S k 		ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] o [o]

some ou [oː]

ou [oː] 옹 [oŋ]
東三開 i̯ung juwng P l TR
S dzr SY
ny k kh g
hj y 		ong [ʊŋ]

iong [yʊŋ] /g,hj_ (窮雄熊)
rong [ɻʊŋ] /y_1 (融)
eng [ɤŋ] /P_

ung [ʊŋ]

jung [jʊŋ] /y_

yuu [juː], yu [ju]

(incl. y_ )
u [u], uu [uː]/K,l,P_

yuu [juː]

ou [oː]/P_

웅 [uŋ]
鍾三開 i̯wong jowng P l TR
S SY
ny k kh g
ŋ x ʔ y 		ong [ʊŋ]

iong [yʊŋ] /x,ʔ,y_
rong [ɻʊŋ] /y_1 (容)
eng [ɤŋ] /P_

ung [ʊŋ]

jung [jʊŋ] /ʔ,y_

yuu [juː], yu [ju]

(incl. ʔ,y_ )
u [u], uu [uː]/K,P_

you [joː]

ou [oː]/P_

옹 [oŋ]

용 [joŋ] /y_
융 [juŋ] /x_

屋一開 uk uwk P T l
S k kh
x h ʔ 		u [u] uk [ʊk] oku [oku] oku [oku] 옥 [ok]
沃一開 uok owk P T l
S k kh
x h ʔ 		u [u]

but uo [uo] (沃)

uk [ʊk]

but juk [jʊk] (沃)

oku [oku] oku [oku] 옥 [ok]
屋三開 i̯uk juwk P l TR
S SR SY
ny k kh g
ŋ x ʔ hj 		u [u]

ü [y] /K_
but:
ou [ou] (軸粥熟肉)
iu [jou] (宿六)
uo [uo] (縮)

uk [ʊk] uku [uku] /P_

oku [oku] /l,m_
iku [iku] /TR,K,ny_
uku [uku] /S,SR,SY_

uku [uku] /P_

oku [oku] /m_
iku [iku] /TR,K,ny,l_
yuku [juku] /S,SR,SY_

욱 [uk]

옥 [ok] /P_
육 [juk] /l,nr,y_

燭三開 i̯wok jowk P l TR
S SY
ny k kh g
ŋ x y 		u [u]

ü [y] /K_
but:
ü [y] (續綠)

uk [ʊk]

juk [jʊk] /ŋ_

oku [oku]

yoku [joku] /y_

yoku [joku] 옥 [ok]

욱 [uk] /K_
욕 [jok] /ny,y_

江攝 Jiang She

Rime Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese Korean
Karlgren Baxter Go-On Kan-On
江二開 ång æwng iang [jɑŋ] / K_

but: ang [ɑŋ] (扛缸港)
uang [wɑŋ] /TSR_
ang [ɑŋ] /P_

ong [ɔːŋ] /K_,P_

oeng [œːŋ] /TSR_

ou [oː] au [oː] 앙 [aŋ]
覺二開 åk æwk LIT

üe [yɛ] / K_ (not ʔ_)
but e [ɤ] (殼)
(u)o [uo] / else
but u [u] (朴)
COL
iao [jau] / K_ (角殼)
ao [au] (剝雹)

ok [ɔːk] /K_,P_

ak [ɐk] /ʔ_
for /TR_:
oek [œːk] (涿啄琢卓桌)
or ok [ɔːk] (擢濯)
or uk [ʊk] (濁鐲)
for /SR_:
ok [ɔːk] (朔欶)
or uk [ʊk] (捉)

oku [oku] /P_

aku [aku]

aku [aku] 악 [ak]

止攝 Zhi She

Rime Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese Korean
Karlgren Baxter Go-On Kan-On
支三開 ie̯ j(i)e i [i]

but ei [ei] (碑卑被)
i [ɿ,ʅ] /S,TSRY_
but i [i] (徙璽)
er [ɑɚ] /ny_

ei [ei] /P,l,K_

i [iː] /S,TSRY_
but aai [aːi] (徙璽)
i [iː] /ny,ŋ,ʔ,hj,y_
but ai [ɐi] (蟻)

i [i] i [i] 이 [i]

의 [ɰi] /x,ŋ,ʔ_
but some 아 [a] /S,TSRY_

脂三開 i (j)ij i [i]

but ei [ei]
(悲美備眉湄媚魅)
i [ɿ,ʅ] /S,TSRY_
er [ɑɚ] /ny_

ei [ei] /P,d,l,nr,K_

i [iː] /S,SR,SY_
but ei [ei] (死四)
i [iː] /ny,ŋ,ʔ,hj,y_

i [i] i [i] 이 [i]

아 [a] /ts,tsh,dz,s,_
의 [ɰi] /x,ŋ,ʔ_
but 이 [i] (伊咿)

之三開 i i i [i]

i [ɿ,ʅ] /S,TSRY_
but e [ɤ] (廁)
er [ɑɚ] /ny_

ei [ei] /P,l,nr,K_

but eoi [ɵy] (裏)
i [iː] /S,TSRY_
i [iː] /ny,ŋ,ʔ,hj,y_

i [i]

mostly o [o] /K_
i [i] /ʔ,hj,y_

 i [i] 이 [i]

의 [ɰi] /x,ŋ,ʔ_
but some 아 [a] /S,SR,SY_

微三開 e̯i jɨj i [i]

(none /S,TSRY_)

i [iː] /ŋ,ʔ,hj,y_

ei [ei] /K_
(none /S,TSRY,P_)

e [e] i [i] 이 [i]

의 [ɰi] /x,ŋ,ʔ_

支三合 wie̯ jw(i)e uei [uei]

uai [uai] /SR_
ei [ei] /l_

eoi [ɵy]

wai [wɐi] /K_
ai [ɐi] /ŋ_

ui [ui]

wi [i] /K_

ui [ui]

wi [i] /K_

위 [wi]

유 [ju] /k,kh_
우 [u] /S,TSRY_
but some 웨 [we] (詭佹惴燬)

脂三合 wi (j)wij uei [uei]

but i [i] (遺季悸)
uai [uai] /SR_
ei [ei] /l_

eoi [ɵy]

wai [wɐi] /K_

ui [ui]

wi [i] /K_
yui [jui] /y_

ui [ui]

wi [i] /K_ incl. y_

우 [u]

유 [ju] / hj,l,ny,y_
but some 웨 [we] /k,g_
and 위 [wi] /ts,tsh,dz_ (顇醉瘁翠晷位)

微三合 we̯i jwɨj uei [uei]

ei [ei] /P_

wai [wɐi] /K_

ai [ɐi] /ŋ_
wei [wei] /m_
ei [ei] /P_
but ai [ɐi] (沸費)

i [i] /P_

wi [i] /ʔ,hj_
we [e] /K_

i [i] /P_

wi [i] /K_

위 [wi] /K_

이 [i] /P_

遇攝 Yu She

Rime Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese Korean
Karlgren Baxter Go-On Kan-On
魚三開 i̯wo jo ü [y]

but u [u] (廬蘆)
and uo [uo] (所)
u [u] /TSRY_

eoi [ɵy] /S,nr,l,K_

o [ɔː] /SR_
yu [yː] /TR,SY,ny_
but eoi [ɵy] (除)
yu [yː] /ŋ,ʔ,y_

yo [jo] /TRSY,nr,ny,y_

o [o] /l,S,K,ʔ_

yo [jo]

o [o] /SR_

虞三合 i̯u ju ü [y]

u [u] /TSRY,P_

ou [ou] /m_

u [uː] /P_
eoi [ɵy] /S,l,K_
o [ɔː] /SR_
but ou [ou] (數)
yu [yː] /TR,SY,ny_
yu [yː] /ŋ,ʔ,hj,y_

u [u] /P,l,S,SY,hj,K,ʔ_

yu [ju] /SR,dzy,ny,y_
yuu [juː] /TR_

u [u] /P,l,SR,hj,K,ʔ_

yu [ju] /S,SY,ny,y_
yuu [juː] /TR_

模一開 uo u u [u]

but (u)o [uo] (措模)
ou [ou] (都)

ou [ou] /P,T,S,l_

ng [ŋ̩] /ŋ_
u [uː] /K_

u [u] or o [o] o [o]

wo [o] /ʔ_

蟹攝 Xie She

Rime Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese Korean
Karlgren Baxter Go-On Kan-On
齊四開 iei ej i [i] ai [ɐi] ai [ai]

e [e] /K_

ei [eː]
祭三開 i̯äi- j(i)ejH i [i]

i [ʅ] /TSRY_

ai [ɐi]

jai [jɐi] /y_

e [e]

ei [eː] /y_
ai [ai] /S,TR_

ei [eː]
泰一開 âi- ajH ai [ai]

but a [ɑ] (大)
ei [ei] /P_

ui [uːi] /P_

aai [aːi] /T,l_
oi [ɔːi] /n,S,K_
but aai [aːi] (艾)

ai [ai] ai [ai]
佳二開 ai ɛɨ ai [ai]

ia [iɑ] /K_
but ie [iɛ] (蟹解邂懈)
ʔ_: ai [ai] (矮隘)
or wa [uɑ] (娃)

aai [aːi]

but ai [ɐi] (矮)
and waa [waː] (娃)

e [e] ai [ai]
皆二開 ăi ɛj ai [ai]

ie [iɛ] /K_
but ai [ai] (駭骸楷)
and a [ɑ] (尬)

aai [aːi] e [e] ai [ai]
夬二開 ai- æjH ai [ai]

ie [iɛ] /K_

aai [aːi] e [e] ai [ai]
咍一開 âi oj ai [ai]

ei [ei] /P_

oi [ɔːi]

but aai [aːi] (猜態)
ui [uːi] /P_

ai [ai] ai [ai]
廢三開 i̯ɒi- jojH i [i] /ŋ_ aai [aːi] /ŋ_ e [e] ai [ai]


Rime Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese Korean
Karlgren Baxter Go-On Kan-On
齊四合 iwei wej uei [uei] /K_

but ie [iɛ] (攜)

wai [wɐi] /K_ we [e] wai [ai]
祭三合 i̯wäi- jw(i)ejH uei [uei]

rui [ɻuei] /y_

eoi [ɵy]

jeoi [jɵy] /y_
wai [wɐi] /K_

ai [ai] /TR,S_

e(i) [e(ː)] /SY,y_
we [e] /hj_

ei [eː]

wei [eː] /hj_

泰一合 wâi- wajH uei [uei]

uai [uai] /ŋ_ (外)

eoi [ɵy]

ui [uːi] /K_
oi [ɔːi] /ŋ_ (外)

ai [ai] /T,S_

we [e] /K_

ai [ai] /T,S_

wai [ai] /K_

佳二合 wai wɛɨ ua [uɑ] /K_

but uo [uo] (蝸)

waa [waː] /K_

but wo [wɔː] (蝸媧)

we [e] /K_ wai [(w)ai] /K_
皆二合 wăi wɛj uai [uai] /K_ waai [waːi] /K_ we [e] /K_ wai [ai] /K_
夬二合 wai- wæjH uai [uai] /K_

but ua [uɑ] (話)

waai [waːi] /K_

but waa [waː] (話)

we [e] /K_ wai [ai] /K_
灰一合 uâi woj uei [uei]

ei [ei] /P,n,l_

ui [uːi] /P,K_

wai [wɐi] /ŋ_
eoi [ɵy] /T,n,l,S_
but oi [ɔːi] (內)

ai [ai] /T,n,l,S_

e [e] /P_
we [e] /K_

ai [ai]

wai [(w)ai] /K_

廢三合 i̯wɒi- jwojH ei [ei] /P_

uei [uei] /h,ʔ_

ai [ɐi] /P_

ui [uːi] /h_
wai [wɐi] /ʔ_

o [o] /P_

we [e] /K_

ai [ai] /P_

wai [(w)ai] /K_

臻攝 Zhen She

Rime Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese Korean
Karlgren Baxter Go-On Kan-On
真三開 jĕn (j)in in [in]

but ün [yn] (訊汛)
en [ən] /TR,SY,ny_

an [ɐn]

eon [ɵn] /S,l_
but an [ɐn] (辛新薪親)
jan [jɐn] /ʔ,y_

CN3:

in [iɴ]
on [oɴ] /K_
CN4:
in [iɴ]

in [iɴ]
臻三開 jɛn in en [ən] /SR_ an [ɐn] /SR_

but eon [ɵn] (臻榛)

in [iɴ] in [iɴ]
欣三開 jən jɨn in [in] /K_ an [ɐn] /K_

jan [jɐn] /ʔ_

on [oɴ] in [iɴ]
痕一開 ən on en [ən] /K_

un [uən] /th_ (吞)

an [ɐn] /K,th_

jan [jɐn] /ʔ_ (恩)

on [oɴ] on [oɴ]
質三開 jĕt (j)it i [i]

i [ʅ] /TR,SY,ny_

at [ɐt] (incl. /S_)

but it [iːt] (必秩)
eot [ɵt] /l_
jat [jɐt] /ʔ,y_
but jyut [jyːt] (乙)

iti [itɕi]

but otu [otsu] (乙)

itu [itsu]
櫛三開 jɛt it SR_:

e [ɤ] (瑟)
and i [ʅ] (櫛陸蝨)
and ie [iɛ] (櫛台)

at [ɐt] /SR_

but it [iːt] (櫛)

iti [itɕi] itu [itsu]
迄三開 jət jɨt i [i] /K_ at [ɐt] /K_ oti [otɕi] itu [itsu]
沒一開 ət ot e [ɤ] /h_ at [ɐt] /h_ ? ?


Rime Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese Korean
Karlgren Baxter Go-On Kan-On
真三合 juĕn jwin ün [yn] /K_

but iong [yʊŋ] (窘)

wan [wɐn] /K_
淳三合 juĕn (j)win ün [yn] /S,K_

but in [in] (尹)
and un [uən] (筍遵)
un [uən] /TR,SY,nr,l_

文三合 juən jun en [ən] /P_

ün [yn] /K_

魂一合 uən won en [ən] /P,n_

un [uən] /T,l,S,K_
but ün [yn](巽遜)

質三合 juĕt wit ü [y]
術三合 juĕt (j)wit ü [y] /K,l_

u [u] /TR,SY_
uai [uai] /SR_

物三合 juət jut u [u] /P_

but o [uɔ] (佛)
ü [y] /K_
but üe [yɛ] (崛倔掘)

沒一合 uət wot o [uɔ] /P_

but ei [ei] (沒白)
u [u] /T,S,K_

山攝 Shan She

效攝 Xiao She

果攝 Guo She

假攝 Jia She

宕攝 Dang She

梗攝 Geng She

曾攝 Ceng She

流攝 Liu She

深攝 Shen She

咸攝 Xian She

Tones

  • P = MC unvoiced obstruent onset
  • M = MC sonorant onset
  • B = MC voiced obstruent onset
Tone Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyen 		Wu
Suzhou 		Japanese (?) Korean
Karlgren Baxter Go-On Kan-On
平
Ping 		P ∅ ∅ 55 55 55 44 44
M 35 21 24 11 24
B
上
Shang 		P : X 214 35 51 31 52
M 23 31
B 51 23 or 22 33 52
去
Qu 		P - H 33 11 412
M 22 33 31
B
入
Ru 		P ∅

(-p,t,k)

∅

(-p,t,k)

Random 55 (short)

33 (long)

32 21 4
M 51 22 5 4 23
B 35

Resources

Middle Chinese

Modern Chinese

Sino-Xenic

Other correspondence lists

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Bernhard Karlgren, also known as 高本漢.
  2. ↑ William Baxter.
  3. ↑ Values suggested by Pan Wuyun (潘悟雲).
  4. ↑ The hanja and prescriptive han'gŭl are spellings from the Dongguk Jeongun (東國正韻 동국정운).
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