Tsakxa verbs

Verbs in Tsakxa are comparatively heavily inflected, conjugating by aspect, mood and voice. There are two classes of verbs, the monopartite verbs (which have a single stem and are conjugated regularly) and the bipartite verbs (which have a bipartite stem and whose conjugation is far more complex and irregular).

Verbal roots

Verbs may either be active or stative. Most stative verbs correspond to adjectives in English and are used similarly, potentially with adjectival prefixes:

Mama pesh - a rich man - Mama anu-pesh - a man who is said to be rich - Mama atu-pesh-as - if the man had been rich

Active verbs may also be used as adjectives, in which case they correspond to present participles or relative clauses:

Mama ʔuwes - a man who eats

Bipartite verbs have two stems. These, however, may not be used as adjectives. Many bipartite verbs have monopartite, intransitive counterparts which are used for this purpose:

Mama aq - a man who walks, the walking man - as-aq - to walk somewhere

Commonalities

Polarity

Negativity is marked with the particle pa, which is placed in a variety of places depending on emphasis and personal taste. Reduplication to apa creates an emphatic 'no' or 'never':

Wen-ø wes-ø-ø apa su - I never eat meat (meat-TOPIC eat-IMPERF-INDIC never 1ps)

An emphatic declarative is also possible with the particle ʔu which works in much the same way as pa:

Wen-ø wes-ø-ø ʔu su - I always eat meat (meat-TOPIC eat-IMPERF-INDIC DECL.EMPH 1ps)

Voice/agreement

Tsakxa has what is termed by Dawkins as an 'information saliency voice system'. The verb agrees with the 'main argument' or 'focus', which is usually the topic but can also introduce new information in some contexts. When the focus is the agent, the prefix is null:

Kangqa ta-nxa-ø su - as for the beast, it saw me

When the focus is the patient, the prefix is a se-

Wen se-wes - The meat is eaten

When the focus is an adverbial argument, it takes no case marking itself, but the prefix mimics the case marking (before allomorphy):

Waspa nqe-kaq-enxa - We sat down in the tent (that we are discussing)

Tenqa a-seweq (umut-anxa) - This gift is for Tenqa (whom we have been discussing)

Causativity

Causatives are formed simply by adding a second ergative argument:

Pema, Nunu-kxa utshu-nxa - Pema was made to commit suicide/was killed by Nunu

Conjunctive form

The conjunctive or participle form is derived from monopartite verbs simply with the suffix -u. Regular bipartite verbs form the conjunctive in much the same way after joining their two stems together, but many bipartite verbs have forms acquired by suppletion. The conjunctive form is used in sentences alongside a 'main verb'. The 'main verb' carries the vast majority of the inflection and grammatical information, which is then transferred to the conjunctive. This construction expresses two connected actions, with the connection determined by context:

Pema wen enxa-nxa utshu-u - Pema ate the meat and died (due to the meat)

The conjunctive form is also used in constructions such as 'I love eating meat':

Su, wen enxa-u se-miqat-ungxu - I love eating meat

Although the participle lacks much of the inflection found on other verbs, it is still inflected for the role of the focus, as are other verbs:

Wen se-enxa-u miqat-ungxu su - Meat, I love eating it

Use with auxiliaries

There are a few verbs which act as auxiliaries in that they add a sense of, for example, particular motion. These verbs are never found in finite form (or, if they are, have a different meaning), only in conjunctive form alongside a different verb:

ush-u gives a sense of turning or movement away: Sesu-su-ø ush-u ut-wa-wa atu-ak - I would turn and go away from my sister

nas-u is roughly equivalent to 'be able to': Su ø-ø-aq-ø-el ø-nas-u - I think I can walk (1ps ERG-CERT-walk-IMPERF-DUB ERG-can-CONJ)

tuq-u is roughly equivalent to 'have to', 'must', 'should': Su ø-ø-aq-ø-ø ø-tuq-u - I have to walk (1ps ERG-CERT-walk-IMPERF-INDIC ERG-must-CONJ)

aʔ-u is an intensifier: Efan-ø aʔ-u se-ø-ø-paʔ-enxa-ø-ø - Ivan was struck violently (Ivan-TOPIC violently-CONJ ABS-CERT-strike-PERF-INDIC)

Personal suffix

The personal suffix is the last suffix to be applied to any verb. It takes the form -(s)u for male speakers and -(s)a for female speakers. Its use is ill-defined and implies, generally, motion towards the speaker:

Wa-ak-u/Wa-ak-a - Come towards me

It can also imply benefit brought to the speaker:

Tekutaru se-a-nxa-sa - He told the doctor for me

Or simply imply some kind of relation to the speaker in what is being said:

Nenqa ʔu-tashit-enxa-u - Nenqa read a something to me/read (a book) that I wrote

Monopartite verbs

Monopartite verbs are by far the more common type of verb in Tsakxa. They have a single stem and can take up to three prefixes and two suffixes (not including the personal clitic, whose uses are discussed above):

Waspap unqatuʔutashitenxas-u Nenqakxa
			agreement (-3)	evidentiality (-2)	valency (-1)	stem (0)	aspect (1)	mood (2)	suffix (3)
waspa	-ep	-ø	unqa-	atu-	ʔu-	tashet	-enxa	-s	-u	Nenqa	-kxa
tent	-that	-TOPIC	INESS-	NONFACT-	INTRANS-	read	-PERF	-SUBJ	-PERS	Nenqa	-ERG
Had Nenqa deliberately read something that relates to me/read something to me in that tent (that we can see) (and have been talking about) (but he hasn't)

Agreement

All verbs agree with the focussed element, expressing the grammatical relationship of the element with the rest of the sentence through a prefix which is mostly identical (before allomorphy) to or a contracted version of the standard case suffix that would otherwise be attached to the noun in a non-focussed context.This is the first prefix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ^-3.

Case	Prefix	Usage
Ergative (-kxa)	ø-	Shows the volitive agent
Absolutive (-ø)	se-	Shows the patient or non-volitive agent
Dative (-(q)a)	a-	Shows a genitive, beneficiary or indirect object
Comitative/locative (-(t)a)	ta-	Shows a locative with place names ('in', 'to'), 'and', 'with', 'by', instrumental uses: 'using'
Inessive (-(u)nqa)	unq(a)-	Inside (a hollow object, building etc), into, in
Ablative (-ut)	u(t)-	Out of, outside, by, near, away from
Subessive (-fa)	f-	Under, down into, beneath
Adessive (-atqe)	tq(a)-	On, above, up into, up onto
Temporal (-te)	(e)t-	At (time), during, for (an amount of time)

Evidentiality

All verbs carry inflection for evidentiality. This is the second prefix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ^-2. There are three degrees of evidentiality:

Certainty (marked by the prefix ø-), used when the speaker observed the act in question or is certain that it occurred:

Sesu-ø uʔ-a se-ø-ta-nxa - your sister saw you (sister-TOPIC 2ps-DAT ABS-CERT-see-PERF 2ps)

In future contexts use of the null prefix is emphatic:

Nenqa patangqa se-ta-nxa - I WILL see Nenqa tomorrow (nenqa-TOPIC tomorrow ABS-CERT-see-PERF)

Uncertainty, marked by the prefix anu-, is used for reported speech and events that may have happened:

Nenqa uʔ se-anu-ta-nxa - you saw Nenqa (didn't you?)

There is a strong overlap with the dubitative here - original analyses treated this as a circumfix with the dubitative suffix but there are instances of one occurring without the other. The dubitative implies something slightly different from the anu- prefix - anu- simply confirms that the speaker was not present at the event and cannot vouch completely for what happened. The dubitative gives a degree of actual distancing from the event:

Nenqa aʔ se-anu-ta-nxa - I believe that he saw Nenqa (but I wasn't actually present at the time)

Nenqa uʔ se-anu-ta-nxa-l - He says/people say that he saw Nenqa (but I don't know whether to believe it)

The final evidentiality prefix denotes hypotheticality, marked with atu. This states that the event never in fact happened:

Nenqa uʔ se-atu-ta-nxa - you would've seen Nenqa/say you'd seen Nenqa

Valency

Transitive verbs are distinguished by whether they can take this prefix or not. This is the third and final prefix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ^-1. There are three valency prefixes which may be applied to these verbs:

Transitive

The transitive prefix is null. In transitive verbs, this null prefix must be accompanied by a transitive patient:

Sesu-sa wen enxa - My sister is eating meat

Generic

Transitive verbs can take the prefix -(ʔ)u(ʔ)-, which is referred to variously as the 'generic' prefix, the 'monotransivity' prefix, and the 'null-patient' prefix. This makes the verb monotransitive or generic:

Sesu-sa uʔ-enxa - my sister is eating (something)

The verb cannot then take a patient. The sentence *Sesu-sa wen uʔ-enxa is ungrammatical.

Reflexive

Transitive verbs can take the prefix (f)a(q), which makes them 'reflexive'. This can have reciprocal or reflexive meaning:

Sesu-sa aq-enxa - my sister is eating herself

Sesuf-a aq-enxa - my two sisters are eating each other

Aspect

All verbs carry inflection for aspect (perfective or imperfective). This is the first suffix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ¹. In monopartite verbs, this is accomplished by the addition of a suffix.

Perfective aspect

The Perfective aspect implies a single action, complete and independent of any other action and is formed by (e)nxa (the /e/ assimilates to a preceding vowel and causes lenition of /t/ to /s/ and /p/ to /f/ in preceding consonants). For example:

Sesu-sa se-ø-ta-nxa - I saw/see my sister at one point (sister.TOPIC-PERSONAL ABS-CERT-see-PERF)

The perfective does not imply any kind of past tense, and can be used in the future for any distinct single action:

Sesu-sa patangqa se-ta-nxa - I will see my sister tomorrow (sister.TOPIC-PERSONAL tomorrow ABS-see-PERF)

Imperfective aspect

The Imperfective aspect implies continuous or repeated action. It is formed with a null morpheme in the vast majority of verbs, although some verbs take an epenthetic -e when other suffixes are not present.

Sesu-sa se-ta - I'm currently seeing my sister/I see my sister frequently (sister.TOPIC-PERSONAL ABS-see-IMPERF)

Sesu-sa se-ta pangxu - I used to see my sister/I was seeing my sister last year (sister.TOPIC-PERSONAL ABS-see-IMPERF last.year)

Mood

All verbs also carry inflection for mood. This is the second suffix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ². There are four moods distinguished in Tsakxa:

Indicative

The Indicative mood describes actions that definitely have happened, will happen or are happening within the speaker's knowledge. It is marked by a null morpheme (shown here with -ø but not marked in the actual written language).

Kangqa se-ta-nxa - I saw the beast

It is also used for imperatives in almost all verbs:

Bashung-ø uʔ-kxa se-tashet-enxa-ø! - Read the book! (book-TOPIC 2ps-ERG ABS-read-PERF-INDIC)

Some verbs, however, have their own distinct imperative root:

Bashung-ø uʔ-kxa se-sang-nxa-ø! - Look at the book! (book-TOPIC 2ps-ERG ABS-see-PERF-INDIC)

Subjunctive

The Subjunctive or Modal mood describes actions that may or may not have happened and that the speaker feels strongly about. It is marked by a suffixed -(a)s:

Aʔ-ø se-ø-utshu-ø-s - I hope he's dying somewhere (3ps-TOPIC ABS-UNCERT-die-IMPERF-SUBJ)

It is also used for 'if I were' sentences:

Su-ø se-pesh-as - if I were a rich man (1ps-TOPIC ABS-rich-IMPERF-SUBJ)

Dubitative

The Dubitative mood describes actions devoid of emotional content that the speaker wishes to distance themselves from - primarily reported speech. It is also used for open questions. It is formed with the suffix -l:

Aʔ-ø, se-utxu-ø-l aʔ-m tek-enxa-ø - 'he says that he's dying' (3ps-TOPIC ABS-die-IMPERF-DUB 3ps-TOP say-PERF-INDIC)

Interrogative

The Interrogative is used to ask yes or no questions. It is formed with the suffix -(e)f:

Uʔ-ø wes-enxa-f? - Will you eat? (2ps-TOPIC eat-PERF-INTER)

Bipartite verbs

Bipartite verbs have twin stems and are mostly verbs of motion or auxiliaries. It is believed that, originally, all Tsakxa verbs were bipartite, and exactly which verbs fall under this classification varies by dialect (e.g. West Mountain Tsakxa wa-ak, Valley Tsakxa wak, 'go'). Bipartite verbs incorporate direct objects and locatives and take some inflection on each stem. They may take up to five affixes. For example:

Petukal anuwawa Efanakxa nak-u
		evidentiality (-1)	first stem (0)	aspect (1)	mood (2)			agreement (3)	second stem (0)	suffix (+1)
Petukal	-ø	atu-	wa	-wa	-s	Efan	-akxa	na-	ak	-u
Saint Petersburg	-FOCUS	CONTFACT-	go	~IMPERF	-SUBJ	Ivan	-ERG	LAT-	go	=PERS
Were Ivan on his way to Saint Petersburg (a place we've just been discussing) (where I live or am presently) (but he isn't)

Evidentiality

Evidentiality (glossed with a superscript ^-1) is formed using exactly the same prefixes as in monopartite verbs. The prefixes attach to the first stem:

Su anu-tas-tas-el ta-ma - (I think that) he's looking at me (2ps-TOPIC NONCERT^-1-look⁰-IMPERF¹-DUB² LOC³-look⁰)

Su tas-tas-el ta-ma - (I am certain that) he's looking at me (2ps-TOPIC CERT^-1-look⁰~IMPERF¹ LAT³-look)

First stem

The first stem (glossed with a superscript ⁰) is the second element of the verbal complex:

Su anu-tas-tas ta-ma - He's looking at me (2ps-TOPIC NONCERT^-1-look⁰~IMPERF¹ LOC³-look⁰)

Aspect

In bipartite verbs, the perfect is formed by the bare stem, whilst the imperfect is formed by reduplication of the second syllable of the first part of the stem. Aspect is glossed with a superscript ¹.

Man tas-ø-el ta-ma? - What did you look at? (what-TOPIC look⁰~PERF¹-DUB² LOC³-look⁰)

Man tas-tas-el ta-ma? - What are you looking at? (what-TOPIC look⁰-IMPERF¹-DUB² LOC³-look⁰)

Mood

Mood (glossed with a superscript ²) is formed using exactly the same suffixes as monopartite verbs. In bipartite verbs the suffixes attach to the first stem:

Man-ø tas-tas-el ta-ma? - What are you looking at? (what-TOPIC look⁰-IMPERF¹-DUB² LOC³-look⁰)

Uʔ-ø tas-tas-as ta-ma - If I were looking at you (2ps-TOPIC look-IMPERF¹-SUBJ² LOC³-look⁰)

Incorporation of arguments

All arguments other than the dominant, or 'topical', argument are placed within the two stems.

Mosaqan wa-f uʔ-akxa na-ak? - Did you go to Moscow? (Moscow-TOPIC go⁰-INTER² 2ps-ERG LAT³-go⁰)

Not only objects, but clauses can be incorporated:

Aʔ, te-f nxa-nxa aʔ-kxa sa? - Does he think that I cooked it? (3ps think⁰-INTER² cook-PERF¹ 1ps-ERG think⁰)

Agreement

Agreement is with the topic or focus, as in monopartite verbs. However, in bipartite verbs the agreement prefix (glossed with a ³) attaches to the second stem (the only one of the 'true affixes' to do so):

Petukal as-as-ef ta-aq? - Are you walking to Saint Petersburg? (Saint.Petersburg walk⁰~IMPERF¹-INTER²LAT³-walk⁰)

Second stem

The second stem (glossed with a superscript ⁰) is the second-to-last element of the verbal complex, following the agreement prefix and preceding the personal suffix:

Su-ø anu-tas-tas-el ta-ma - (I think that) he's looking at me (2ps-TOPIC NONCERT^-1-look⁰-IMPERF¹-DUB² LOC³-look⁰)