Kosi: Difference between revisions

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*Language author: Trebor Jung
*Language author: Trebor Jung
*Started: December 2003
*Started: December 2003
*Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and [http://www.zompist.com/kebreni.htm Kebreni]), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: ir- 'to write', kek 'blue', and öt 'five' come from Hungarian; kesa 'eight', kel- 'to speak', and tuli 'fire' come from Finnish. Some lexical items were borrowed from Romance: am- 'to like', mer 'ocean', mil 'one thousand'. (4) The language has numerous irregularities and oddities.
*Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and [http://www.zompist.com/kebreni.htm Kebreni]), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: hejes- 'right/correct', kek 'blue', and öt 'five' come from Hungarian; kesa 'eight', kel- 'to speak', and tuli 'fire' come from Finnish. Some lexical items were borrowed from Romance: am- 'to like', mer 'ocean', mil 'one thousand'. (4) The language has numerous irregularities and oddities.


== Phonology ==
== Phonology ==
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|-
|-
! Fricatives
! Fricatives
| || v || th, dh || s ([z] intervocalically, [s] = ss; [S] before /i/ in some dialects) || || || || h ([x] pre-consonantally)
| || v || th, dh || s ([z] intervocalically, intervocalic [s] = ss; [S] before /i/ in some dialects) || || || || h ([x] preconsonantally)
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Affricate
Line 62: Line 62:
|-
|-
| Nominative || has || 'house (as subject of the sentence)'
| Nominative || has || 'house (as subject of the sentence)'
|-
| Partitive || hasip || 'part/some/any of the house'
|-
|-
| Accusative || hassyt || 'house (as direct object of the sentence)'
| Accusative || hassyt || 'house (as direct object of the sentence)'
|-
|-
| Dative || hassad || 'to a house'
| Dative || hassad || 'to a house'
|-
| Partitive || hassom || 'part/some/any of the house'
|-
|-
| Genitive || hasse || 'of a house'
| Genitive || hasse || 'of a house'
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| Inessive || hassah || 'in/at a house'
| Inessive || hassah || 'in/at a house'
|-
|-
| Illative || hastah 'into/towards a house'
| Illative || hastah || 'into/towards a house'
|-
|-
| Adessive || hassam (2) || 'on (top of) a house'
| Adessive || hassam (2) || 'on (top of) a house'
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| Allative || hastam || 'onto a house'
| Allative || hastam || 'onto a house'
|-
|-
| Ablative || hasiv || 'from a house (the source)'
| Ablative || hassiv || 'from a house (the source)'
|-
|-
| Delative || hasri || 'downwards from the top of a house'
| Delative || hasri || 'downwards from the top of a house'
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| Commetative || hasru || 'accompanying a house'
| Commetative || hasru || 'accompanying a house'
|-
|-
| Prolative || haseb || 'alongside the house'
| Prolative || hasseb || 'alongside the house'
|-
|-
| Purlative || hassath || 'through/across/beyond/past a house'
| Purlative || hassath || 'through/across/beyond/past a house'
Line 115: Line 115:
| 3s || hasen
| 3s || hasen
|-
|-
| 1p || haspa
| 1p || hastö
|-
|-
| 2p || hasüt
| 2p || hastü
|-
|-
| 3p || hasev
| 3p || hasde
|}
|}


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| 3p || hasse
| 3p || hasse
|}
|}


==== Concordance Rules ====
==== Concordance Rules ====
Adjectives must agree in case and number with the nouns they modify. The same operations and suffixes are used for declension of adjectives and nouns. Use of quantifiers does not affect the number: öt 'five' + has 'house' = öt has 'five houses' - not *öt hes.
Adjectives must agree in case and number with the nouns they modify. The same operations and suffixes are used for declension of adjectives and nouns. Nouns used with quantifiers require the partitive case: öt 'five' + has 'house' = öt hassom 'five houses'.


==== Comparison ====
==== Comparison ====
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| Habitual || kelim
| Habitual || kelim
|-
|-
| Inceptive || keltö
| Inceptive || kelöt
|-
|-
| Inchoative || kekatö
| Inchoative || keköt
|-
|-
| Causative || kelmit
| Causative || kelmit
|-
|-
| Cessative || kelse
| Cessative || kelos
|-
|-
| Pausative || kelda
| Pausative || keled
|-
|-
| Resumptive || kelsu
| Resumptive || kelyb
|-
|-
| Protractive || kelke
| Protractive || kelek
|-
|-
| Iterative || kelha
| Iterative || kelaeh
|-
|-
| Random || kelvo
| Random || kelav
|-
|-
| Frequentative || keltü
| Frequentative || kelüt
|-
|-
| Experiential || kellau
| Experiential || kelau
|-
|-
| Volitional (4) || hiky
| Volitional (4) || hyle
|-
|-
| Intensive || vilcö
| Intensive || vilöc
|-
|-
| Moderative || vilkae
| Moderative || vilok
|-  
|-  
| Attenuative || veltsa
| Attenuative || vilats
|-
|-
| Crescendo || vilnu
| Crescendo || vilun
|-
|-
| Decrescendo || viladh
| Decrescendo || vilith
|}
|}


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| Imperative (5) || Kile!
| Imperative (5) || Kile!
|-
|-
| Subjunctive || keltae
| Subjunctive || kelets
|-
| Negative || e kel
|-
|-
| Obligative || keles
| Obligative || keljan
|-
|-
| Abilitative || Kelvi
| Abilitative || Keloc
|-
|-
| Interrogative || Kelviko?
| Interrogative || Kelocok?
|}
|}


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==== Voice ====
==== Voice ====
{|
{|
| Active || kel
| Active || kel
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| Reflexive || keljo
| Reflexive || keljo
|-
|-
| Reciprocal || kelum
| Reciprocal || kelami
|}
|}


==== Switch-Reference ====
==== Switch-Reference ====


==== The verb 'to have' ====
==== 'to have' ====
Kosi has no verb meaning 'to have'. Instead, it uses periphrasis: hasmi kelah 'My house exists'.
Kosi has no verb meaning 'to have'. Instead, it uses periphrasis: hasmi kelah 'My house exists'.


=== Derivation ===
=== Derivation ===
{|
{|
| Verbal noun || lek 'book' (< leki 'to read'), hesti 'goodness' (< hasti 'good')
| Verbal noun || lak 'book' (< lek- 'to read'), hesti 'goodness' (< hasti 'good')
|-
|-
| Gerund || laka 'an act of reading' (< leki 'to read'), myska 'an act of singing' (< mys- 'to sing')
| Gerund || lakka 'an act of reading' (< lek- 'to read'), myska 'an act of singing' (< mys- 'to sing')
|-
|-
| Verb || tuli 'to burn' (< tuli 'fire'), mys- 'to sing' (< mys 'music/song')
| Verb || tul- 'to burn' (< tuli 'fire'), mys- 'to sing' (< mys 'music/song')
|-
|-
| Adjective || mysu 'musical' (< mys 'music/song'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language')
| Adjective || mysu 'musical' (< mys 'music/song'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language')
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| Imperfect passive participle (7) || liken
| Imperfect passive participle (7) || liken
|-
|-
| Personal participle (8) || liki
| Personal participle || lekemba
|}
|}


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(7) Repeat (6), and add the suffix -n.
(7) Repeat (6), and add the suffix -n.
(8) For the personal participle, substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel, then raise or lower the second vowel, according to the pattern i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o.


== Syntax ==
== Syntax ==
Basic word order is SOV. Adjectives follow their head - numerals are exceptions. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', inemi en 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'.
Basic word order is SOV. Adjectives follow their head - numerals are exceptions. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', esmi es 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'.


== Lexicon ==
== Lexicon ==
Line 337: Line 335:
| banjak || much, many, numerous, lots
| banjak || much, many, numerous, lots
|-
|-
| banjavahtu || frequently, (lit.) many times
| banjak vahtu || frequently, (lit.) many times
|-
|-
| barat || loyal
| barat || loyal
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| ek ves || rain, (lit.) sky water
| ek ves || rain, (lit.) sky water
|-
|-
| emby || person
| emba || person
|-
|-
| entis || past
| entis || past
Line 433: Line 431:
| eraldi || weather, climate
| eraldi || weather, climate
|-
|-
| erin || to touch
| erin- || to touch
|-
|-
| es- || to eat
| es- || to eat
|-
| eskib- || to write
|-
|-
| et- || to understand, to comprehend
| et- || to understand, to comprehend
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| hitam || black
| hitam || black
|-
|-
| hodit || to translate
| hodit- || to translate
|-
|-
| hojo || river
| hojo || river
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|-
|-
| iloba || nephew, neice, grandchild
| iloba || nephew, neice, grandchild
|-
| ir- || to write
|-
|-
| is- || to drink
| is- || to drink
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| mon- || to tell
| mon- || to tell
|-
|-
| mon- hes kal || lie (tell an untruth)
| mon- hejes kal || lie (tell an untruth)
|-
|-
| mosso- || to smile
| mosso- || to smile
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| opp- || to learn, to study
| opp- || to learn, to study
|-
|-
| or || hour
| ora || hour
|-
|-
| os- || to buy
| os- || to buy
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| ot vahtu || again, (lit.) another time
| ot vahtu || again, (lit.) another time
|-
|-
| ör || evening, night
| ö || evening, night
|-
|-
| örek || old
| örek || old

Revision as of 17:02, 18 July 2004

  • Language name: Kosi
  • Language author: Trebor Jung
  • Started: December 2003
  • Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and Kebreni), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: hejes- 'right/correct', kek 'blue', and öt 'five' come from Hungarian; kesa 'eight', kel- 'to speak', and tuli 'fire' come from Finnish. Some lexical items were borrowed from Romance: am- 'to like', mer 'ocean', mil 'one thousand'. (4) The language has numerous irregularities and oddities.

Phonology

Kosi's phonemic inventory is as follows:

Consonants

Labial Labiodental Interdental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stops p, b t, d c ([C] intervocalically in some dialects) k
Nasals m n
Fricatives v th, dh s ([z] intervocalically, intervocalic [s] = ss; [S] before /i/ in some dialects) h ([x] preconsonantally)
Affricate ts ([tS] before /i/ in some dialects)
Liquids l r
Glides j

Vowels

Front Central Palatal Back
High i, ü û (1), u
Mid e (realized as [E]), ö (realized as [9]) y jo ô (1), o
Low a ja

Diphthongs: ae /ai)/, au /au)/

Stress falls on the first syllable of a word.

Syllable structure is (C)V(C). If the addition of a suffix to a root or another suffix would cause an awkward consonant or vowel cluster, the epenthetic vowel /i/ or consonant /j/ is added. The consonants /m/, /n_d/, /l_d/, and /r/, do not cause this because they are pronounced as syllabic consonants.

(1) These vowels are only found in words whose roots contained the vowels /i/ and /e/ which were backed to /M/ and /7/.

Morphology

Nominal and Adjectival Morphology

Case

In the table below, you will notice some words contain ss (e.g. hasse) and others s (e.g. hasjak). The second s in hasse is not part of the case ending - which is -e, not *-se - but because of the orthographical rule that intervocalic s = [z], the s is doubled to prevent hasse being pronounced [haze].

Case Example English gloss
Nominative has 'house (as subject of the sentence)'
Accusative hassyt 'house (as direct object of the sentence)'
Dative hassad 'to a house'
Partitive hassom 'part/some/any of the house'
Genitive hasse 'of a house'
Sociative hassü 'associated with a house'
Instrumental hassi 'by means of a house'
Essive hasken 'as a house'
Benefactive hassenk 'for a house'
Inessive hassah 'in/at a house'
Illative hastah 'into/towards a house'
Adessive hassam (2) 'on (top of) a house'
Allative hastam 'onto a house'
Ablative hassiv 'from a house (the source)'
Delative hasri 'downwards from the top of a house'
Abessive hassac 'without a house'
Commetative hasru 'accompanying a house'
Prolative hasseb 'alongside the house'
Purlative hassath 'through/across/beyond/past a house'
Terminative hasjo 'as far as/until a house'

(2) -am may also be used temporally: ötam.

Possession

  • (non-nominative forms derived with the suffixes -l (accusative) and -n (dative))
Person Example (with noun has 'house')
1s hasmi
2s hasta
3s hasen
1p hastö
2p hastü
3p hasde

Plural

The first vowel of a root is changed as follows: i > û, ü > u, e > ô, ö > e, y > i, a > e, o > ö, u > ü.

Demonstratives

  • (non-nominative forms derived with the suffixes -t (accusative) and -n (dative))
Person Example (with noun has 'house')
1s hastu
2s hasti
3s hassa
1p hastü
2p hastû
3p hasse

Concordance Rules

Adjectives must agree in case and number with the nouns they modify. The same operations and suffixes are used for declension of adjectives and nouns. Nouns used with quantifiers require the partitive case: öt 'five' + has 'house' = öt hassom 'five houses'.

Comparison

Form Example (with adjective nac 'big')
Comparative of inferiority linac
Comparative of superiority denac
Superlative of inferiority tonac
Superlative of superiority runac
Equative sönac

There is no comparative conjunction: ‘X less-big Y’, 'X more-big Y', ‘X equally-big Y’, ‘X least-big Y’, 'X most-big Y'.

Verbal Morphology

Person

See possessive suffixes above; third person singular is marked with a null morpheme -0.

Aspect

Examples are with the verb keli 'to speak', adjective kek 'blue', or vila 'having reflected/illuminated light'.

Aspect Example
Perfect kel
Imperfect (3) kile
Habitual kelim
Inceptive kelöt
Inchoative keköt
Causative kelmit
Cessative kelos
Pausative keled
Resumptive kelyb
Protractive kelek
Iterative kelaeh
Random kelav
Frequentative kelüt
Experiential kelau
Volitional (4) hyle
Intensive vilöc
Moderative vilok
Attenuative vilats
Crescendo vilun
Decrescendo vilith

(3) For imperfect, add the person endings and substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.

(4) For volitional, change the height of the first vowel: i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o.

Mood

Imperative (5) Kile!
Subjunctive kelets
Negative e kel
Obligative keljan
Abilitative Keloc
Interrogative Kelocok?

(5) See the rules of imperfect aspect formation above.

Valency

The suffix -yth converts intransitive verb to its transitive form, or vice versa.

Voice

Active kel
Passive kelen
Reflexive keljo
Reciprocal kelami

Switch-Reference

'to have'

Kosi has no verb meaning 'to have'. Instead, it uses periphrasis: hasmi kelah 'My house exists'.

Derivation

Verbal noun lak 'book' (< lek- 'to read'), hesti 'goodness' (< hasti 'good')
Gerund lakka 'an act of reading' (< lek- 'to read'), myska 'an act of singing' (< mys- 'to sing')
Verb tul- 'to burn' (< tuli 'fire'), mys- 'to sing' (< mys 'music/song')
Adjective mysu 'musical' (< mys 'music/song'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language')
Perfect active participle leki
Perfect passive participle lekin
Imperfect active participle (6) like
Imperfect passive participle (7) liken
Personal participle lekemba

(6) Substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.

(7) Repeat (6), and add the suffix -n.

Syntax

Basic word order is SOV. Adjectives follow their head - numerals are exceptions. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', esmi es 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'.

Lexicon

Kosi English
abad white
abit- to live, to inhabit
ad- to give, to add
ada branch
adi sheep
ajan- to offer
al- to stand (to be standing)
alit- to cease, to discontinue, to quit, to stop, to terminate, to end, to die
alun- to sleep
am- to like, to love
anaja brother (of a male person)
anak child
andin dog
apal shelf
apatmen apartment, flat
areba sister (of a male person)
at door, gate
atap roof, ceiling
atetis future
avan cloud, clump, part, chunk, piece
avi bird
badan body
bajan hollow
banjak much, many, numerous, lots
banjak vahtu frequently, (lit.) many times
barat loyal
baru new, recent
basah wet
baerak flag, banner
beh- to meet
behi cow
bentsa same, equal
berat difficult, tedious, heavy, hard, complex, advanced, interesting, intelligent
beressi special, important
betü letter, character
bin- to create, to construct, to build, to invent, to draw
bisyt- to prove
bo wine
bos chief, leader, boss
buk book
bukas open
bulan moon
bulat round, circular
butuh- to need
ceran liquid
cütet city, town
cütet sedik village
dekat short, brief, low, shallow, near(by), close, slender, narrow, thin
des- to dislike
dme tomorrow
dob- to throw, to toss
dolos- to work
dos- to win
duha also
duna world, planet, home
e no
e ad- to remove, to subtract, to delete
e basah dry
e bentsa different, eccentric
e bukas closed
e duha only
e kaja poor, impoverished
e komn rare
e mahal cheap
e nacur unnatural, abnormal, strange
e ramah mean, unkind
e tista dirty, murky, untidy
ek sky
ek ves rain, (lit.) sky water
emba person
entis past
eraldi weather, climate
erin- to touch
es- to eat
eskib- to write
et- to understand, to comprehend
ev year
ha tree
ha loka forest, (lit.) tree place
hal- to hear, to listen, to perceive audibly
hari stone, rock
has house
hasti good, well
hat back, dorsum
hato cake, pie, pastry
hejes right, correct, true
hes- to paint
het seven, week
hetelen wrong, incorrect
hibas defective (having defects)
hiltsa key
hiset- to pay
hitam black
hodit- to translate
hojo river
hondol- to think (act of thinking)
hul mood, atmosphere, emotion
huth left (as opposed to right)
grass
hü loka field, park, (lit.) grass place
idö time (the fourth dimension)
idöta present, now
ildis star
iloba nephew, neice, grandchild
is- to drink
isel- to taste (perceive by the sense of taste)
ja yes
jalan finger, toe
jatyk- to continue
jats- to play
jauh long, lengthy, tall, high, deep, far, fat, wide, thick, distance
ka arm
kaja rich, wealthy
kala fish (of saltwater)
kalimat sentence (cf. phrase)
kama room, chamber
kamus dictionary
kanal canal, channel, ditch
kanto office
kap- to receive, to obtain, to get
karom three
kata word
kats- to try, to attempt, to endeavor
kaüt- to use (to make use of)
kedi cat
kedvel- to enjoy
kek blue
kel- to speak, to talk, to say, to make a proposition, to ask (a question), to state a question
kel- e kut to complain, (lit.) express dissatisfaction
kelah- to exist
kele bin grammar, (lit.) language's structure
kepala head, pot
keras firm, steady; loud
keris- to seek
kes- to begin, to start, to commence
kessa eight
ket two
ket- to cook
kilap comforting
kinjo lunch, midday meal
komat- to fight, to combat
komn common
koran early, before, already, previous, quick, fast, rapid
kosmo space (outer space)
kot happy, contented, satisfied
könjü easy, light (opposite of heavy), soft, simple, basic, primitive, dull, stupid
kös- to thank
Kös! (colloquial), Kösmital! (to one person; formal), Kösmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) Thanks!, Thank you!
köv- to follow, to go after
kuras monarch
kurase lan princess
kurase mas prince
küeta president
kül- to send, to dispatch, to transmit, to convey
küs- to greet
Küs! (colloquial), Küsmital! (to one person; formal), Küsmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) Hello!, Hi!
lah- to run (to move quickly)
lambat late, after, still, next, slow
lan girl, daughter
lantae floor
lat- to see
lecem bread, grain
lehd- to say farewell/goodbye to (opposite of küs)
Lehd! (colloquial), Lehdmital! (to one person; formal), Lehdmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) Bye!, Goodbye!
leho window
lek- to read
leske lesson
likaht- to move
likaht- ...-iv to come, (lit.) to move from
likaht- ...-tah to go, (lit.) to move to
likaht- ot loka to leave, (lit.) move elsewhere
likaht- sabe kepalai to walk, (lit.) to move by foot
loka place, location
lop- to steal
lora flower, plant, vegetation
lora loka garden, (lit.) plant place
lot- to hope
luh- to pull someone's hair
lun- to clean the plate and lick the fingers, to eat to one's heart's content
mahal expensive, costly
man man, father
man kuras king
manman grandfather (paternal)
mannü grandmother (paternal)
mapana boyfriend, husband
mas boy, son
me ocean, sea
melek warm
meret size
mil one thousand
minut minute
molte all, every, each
molte loka everywhere, (lit.) every place
molte vahtu always, (lit.) every time
mon- to tell
mon- hejes kal lie (tell an untruth)
mosso- to smile
mys music, song
nac big
nacur natural
naeru awe and respect for something dangerous
neri four
net- to laugh
njama meat, flesh, skin
nol zero, none, nothing
nol loka nowhere, (lit.) every place
nol vahtu never (lit.) no time
woman, mother
nü kuras queen
nüman grandfather (maternal)
nünü grandmother (maternal)
nüpana girlfriend, wife
opp- to learn, to study
ora hour
os- to buy
ot other
ot loka elsewhere, (lit.) another place
ot vahtu again, (lit.) another time
ö evening, night
örek old
öt five
pa(k)- (prefixed to verb) Please (contracted form of the defective verb root *pak- 'to ask (a favour)')
padat dense
pana partner (of either gender in either a dating or married relationship)
para money, currency, coins, cost
pas- to spend
pemin- to govern, to administrate
pes- to consider, to ponder
piros red
ramah kind, nice
rendah low (in pitch)
repon- to answer, to respond, to reply
riba fish (of freshwater)
rih- to laugh (maliciously)
sab six; leg
sabe kepala foot, (lit.) head of the leg
sahil beach, shore, coast
sakit ill, sick, unhealthy
sal- to sing
sav- to be familiar with
sedik small, little
sek chair
sekn second (time)
setn certain
sim eye(ball)
sir- to cry
skol school
sol sun, day, today
sön young
söndörü beautiful, pretty, handsome, good-looking, nice-looking, aesthetically pleasing
sötet dark
spital hospital
stoj- awaken
surat letter (written message addressed to a person or organization)
suven- to remember, to recall
taht- to inspire
tal- to find
tala table, desk; flat surface
tam- to attack
tan- to dance
tanan hand
tat- to keep, to retain
taua tower
tema subject, theme, topic
tenap yesterday
tes- to put, to place
tev healthy
tis sad
tista clean, clear, tidy
to lake
toko store, shop
tud- to know (a fact)
tul- to burn
tulli wind, breeze
tset- to help, to assist, to aid
tsin- to do, to make
ulis street
unisti university
utas to travel
ül- to sit
ülke nation, state, country
ürün merchandise, products, goods
üs one
üt- to hit, to strike
vaco dinner, supper
vah- to wait
val- to choose
van- to float
vahtu time, occurrence
ved green
ved- to defend
velyt- to forget
velyt- loka to lose, to misplace, (lit.) to forget [the] location [of]
ves water
vidam funny, comical
vila having reflected/illuminated light
visit- to visit
voimik possible, maybe