Kosi: Difference between revisions
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*Language author: Trebor Jung | *Language author: Trebor Jung | ||
*Started: December 2003 | *Started: December 2003 | ||
*Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and [http://www.zompist.com/kebreni.htm Kebreni]), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: | *Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and [http://www.zompist.com/kebreni.htm Kebreni]), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: hejes- 'right/correct', kek 'blue', and öt 'five' come from Hungarian; kesa 'eight', kel- 'to speak', and tuli 'fire' come from Finnish. Some lexical items were borrowed from Romance: am- 'to like', mer 'ocean', mil 'one thousand'. (4) The language has numerous irregularities and oddities. | ||
== Phonology == | == Phonology == | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Fricatives | ! Fricatives | ||
| || v || th, dh || s ([z] intervocalically, [s] = ss; [S] before /i/ in some dialects) || || || || h ([x] | | || v || th, dh || s ([z] intervocalically, intervocalic [s] = ss; [S] before /i/ in some dialects) || || || || h ([x] preconsonantally) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Affricate | ! Affricate | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| Nominative || has || 'house (as subject of the sentence)' | | Nominative || has || 'house (as subject of the sentence)' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Accusative || hassyt || 'house (as direct object of the sentence)' | | Accusative || hassyt || 'house (as direct object of the sentence)' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Dative || hassad || 'to a house' | | Dative || hassad || 'to a house' | ||
|- | |||
| Partitive || hassom || 'part/some/any of the house' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Genitive || hasse || 'of a house' | | Genitive || hasse || 'of a house' | ||
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| Inessive || hassah || 'in/at a house' | | Inessive || hassah || 'in/at a house' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Illative || hastah 'into/towards a house' | | Illative || hastah || 'into/towards a house' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Adessive || hassam (2) || 'on (top of) a house' | | Adessive || hassam (2) || 'on (top of) a house' | ||
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| Allative || hastam || 'onto a house' | | Allative || hastam || 'onto a house' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Ablative || | | Ablative || hassiv || 'from a house (the source)' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Delative || hasri || 'downwards from the top of a house' | | Delative || hasri || 'downwards from the top of a house' | ||
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| Commetative || hasru || 'accompanying a house' | | Commetative || hasru || 'accompanying a house' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Prolative || | | Prolative || hasseb || 'alongside the house' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Purlative || hassath || 'through/across/beyond/past a house' | | Purlative || hassath || 'through/across/beyond/past a house' | ||
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| 3s || hasen | | 3s || hasen | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 1p || | | 1p || hastö | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2p || | | 2p || hastü | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 3p || | | 3p || hasde | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| 3p || hasse | | 3p || hasse | ||
|} | |} | ||
==== Concordance Rules ==== | ==== Concordance Rules ==== | ||
Adjectives must agree in case and number with the nouns they modify. The same operations and suffixes are used for declension of adjectives and nouns. | Adjectives must agree in case and number with the nouns they modify. The same operations and suffixes are used for declension of adjectives and nouns. Nouns used with quantifiers require the partitive case: öt 'five' + has 'house' = öt hassom 'five houses'. | ||
==== Comparison ==== | ==== Comparison ==== | ||
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| Habitual || kelim | | Habitual || kelim | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Inceptive || | | Inceptive || kelöt | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Inchoative || | | Inchoative || keköt | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Causative || kelmit | | Causative || kelmit | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Cessative || | | Cessative || kelos | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Pausative || | | Pausative || keled | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Resumptive || | | Resumptive || kelyb | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Protractive || | | Protractive || kelek | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Iterative || | | Iterative || kelaeh | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Random || | | Random || kelav | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Frequentative || | | Frequentative || kelüt | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Experiential || | | Experiential || kelau | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Volitional (4) || | | Volitional (4) || hyle | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Intensive || | | Intensive || vilöc | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Moderative || | | Moderative || vilok | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Attenuative || | | Attenuative || vilats | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Crescendo || | | Crescendo || vilun | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Decrescendo || | | Decrescendo || vilith | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| Imperative (5) || Kile! | | Imperative (5) || Kile! | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Subjunctive || | | Subjunctive || kelets | ||
|- | |||
| Negative || e kel | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Obligative || | | Obligative || keljan | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Abilitative || | | Abilitative || Keloc | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Interrogative || | | Interrogative || Kelocok? | ||
|} | |} | ||
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==== Voice ==== | ==== Voice ==== | ||
{| | {| | ||
| Active || kel | | Active || kel | ||
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| Reflexive || keljo | | Reflexive || keljo | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Reciprocal || | | Reciprocal || kelami | ||
|} | |} | ||
==== Switch-Reference ==== | ==== Switch-Reference ==== | ||
==== | ==== 'to have' ==== | ||
Kosi has no verb meaning 'to have'. Instead, it uses periphrasis: hasmi kelah 'My house exists'. | Kosi has no verb meaning 'to have'. Instead, it uses periphrasis: hasmi kelah 'My house exists'. | ||
=== Derivation === | === Derivation === | ||
{| | {| | ||
| Verbal noun || | | Verbal noun || lak 'book' (< lek- 'to read'), hesti 'goodness' (< hasti 'good') | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Gerund || | | Gerund || lakka 'an act of reading' (< lek- 'to read'), myska 'an act of singing' (< mys- 'to sing') | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Verb || | | Verb || tul- 'to burn' (< tuli 'fire'), mys- 'to sing' (< mys 'music/song') | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Adjective || mysu 'musical' (< mys 'music/song'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language') | | Adjective || mysu 'musical' (< mys 'music/song'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language') | ||
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| Imperfect passive participle (7) || liken | | Imperfect passive participle (7) || liken | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Personal participle | | Personal participle || lekemba | ||
|} | |} | ||
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(7) Repeat (6), and add the suffix -n. | (7) Repeat (6), and add the suffix -n. | ||
== Syntax == | == Syntax == | ||
Basic word order is SOV. Adjectives follow their head - numerals are exceptions. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', | Basic word order is SOV. Adjectives follow their head - numerals are exceptions. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', esmi es 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'. | ||
== Lexicon == | == Lexicon == | ||
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| banjak || much, many, numerous, lots | | banjak || much, many, numerous, lots | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | banjak vahtu || frequently, (lit.) many times | ||
|- | |- | ||
| barat || loyal | | barat || loyal | ||
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| ek ves || rain, (lit.) sky water | | ek ves || rain, (lit.) sky water | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | emba || person | ||
|- | |- | ||
| entis || past | | entis || past | ||
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| eraldi || weather, climate | | eraldi || weather, climate | ||
|- | |- | ||
| erin || to touch | | erin- || to touch | ||
|- | |- | ||
| es- || to eat | | es- || to eat | ||
|- | |||
| eskib- || to write | |||
|- | |- | ||
| et- || to understand, to comprehend | | et- || to understand, to comprehend | ||
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| hitam || black | | hitam || black | ||
|- | |- | ||
| hodit || to translate | | hodit- || to translate | ||
|- | |- | ||
| hojo || river | | hojo || river | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| iloba || nephew, neice, grandchild | | iloba || nephew, neice, grandchild | ||
|- | |- | ||
| is- || to drink | | is- || to drink | ||
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| mon- || to tell | | mon- || to tell | ||
|- | |- | ||
| mon- | | mon- hejes kal || lie (tell an untruth) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| mosso- || to smile | | mosso- || to smile | ||
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| opp- || to learn, to study | | opp- || to learn, to study | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | ora || hour | ||
|- | |- | ||
| os- || to buy | | os- || to buy | ||
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| ot vahtu || again, (lit.) another time | | ot vahtu || again, (lit.) another time | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | ö || evening, night | ||
|- | |- | ||
| örek || old | | örek || old |
Revision as of 17:02, 18 July 2004
- Language name: Kosi
- Language author: Trebor Jung
- Started: December 2003
- Abstract: I wanted to make a Uralic-esque language - but not a clone. Important features of Kosi include: (1) Tense is only optional (as in Chinese) and is indicated with temporal adverbs; perfectness takes its place. (2) Some grammatical functions are marked with ablaut (as in English and Kebreni), as well as with affixation. (3) Much of the vocabulary is Uralic: hejes- 'right/correct', kek 'blue', and öt 'five' come from Hungarian; kesa 'eight', kel- 'to speak', and tuli 'fire' come from Finnish. Some lexical items were borrowed from Romance: am- 'to like', mer 'ocean', mil 'one thousand'. (4) The language has numerous irregularities and oddities.
Phonology
Kosi's phonemic inventory is as follows:
Consonants
Labial | Labiodental | Interdental | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stops | p, b | t, d | c ([C] intervocalically in some dialects) | k | ||||
Nasals | m | n | ||||||
Fricatives | v | th, dh | s ([z] intervocalically, intervocalic [s] = ss; [S] before /i/ in some dialects) | h ([x] preconsonantally) | ||||
Affricate | ts ([tS] before /i/ in some dialects) | |||||||
Liquids | l | r | ||||||
Glides | j |
Vowels
Front | Central | Palatal | Back | |
---|---|---|---|---|
High | i, ü | û (1), u | ||
Mid | e (realized as [E]), ö (realized as [9]) | y | jo | ô (1), o |
Low | a | ja |
Diphthongs: ae /ai)/, au /au)/
Stress falls on the first syllable of a word.
Syllable structure is (C)V(C). If the addition of a suffix to a root or another suffix would cause an awkward consonant or vowel cluster, the epenthetic vowel /i/ or consonant /j/ is added. The consonants /m/, /n_d/, /l_d/, and /r/, do not cause this because they are pronounced as syllabic consonants.
(1) These vowels are only found in words whose roots contained the vowels /i/ and /e/ which were backed to /M/ and /7/.
Morphology
Nominal and Adjectival Morphology
Case
In the table below, you will notice some words contain ss (e.g. hasse) and others s (e.g. hasjak). The second s in hasse is not part of the case ending - which is -e, not *-se - but because of the orthographical rule that intervocalic s = [z], the s is doubled to prevent hasse being pronounced [haze].
Case | Example | English gloss |
---|---|---|
Nominative | has | 'house (as subject of the sentence)' |
Accusative | hassyt | 'house (as direct object of the sentence)' |
Dative | hassad | 'to a house' |
Partitive | hassom | 'part/some/any of the house' |
Genitive | hasse | 'of a house' |
Sociative | hassü | 'associated with a house' |
Instrumental | hassi | 'by means of a house' |
Essive | hasken | 'as a house' |
Benefactive | hassenk | 'for a house' |
Inessive | hassah | 'in/at a house' |
Illative | hastah | 'into/towards a house' |
Adessive | hassam (2) | 'on (top of) a house' |
Allative | hastam | 'onto a house' |
Ablative | hassiv | 'from a house (the source)' |
Delative | hasri | 'downwards from the top of a house' |
Abessive | hassac | 'without a house' |
Commetative | hasru | 'accompanying a house' |
Prolative | hasseb | 'alongside the house' |
Purlative | hassath | 'through/across/beyond/past a house' |
Terminative | hasjo | 'as far as/until a house' |
(2) -am may also be used temporally: ötam.
Possession
- (non-nominative forms derived with the suffixes -l (accusative) and -n (dative))
Person | Example (with noun has 'house') |
---|---|
1s | hasmi |
2s | hasta |
3s | hasen |
1p | hastö |
2p | hastü |
3p | hasde |
Plural
The first vowel of a root is changed as follows: i > û, ü > u, e > ô, ö > e, y > i, a > e, o > ö, u > ü.
Demonstratives
- (non-nominative forms derived with the suffixes -t (accusative) and -n (dative))
Person | Example (with noun has 'house') |
---|---|
1s | hastu |
2s | hasti |
3s | hassa |
1p | hastü |
2p | hastû |
3p | hasse |
Concordance Rules
Adjectives must agree in case and number with the nouns they modify. The same operations and suffixes are used for declension of adjectives and nouns. Nouns used with quantifiers require the partitive case: öt 'five' + has 'house' = öt hassom 'five houses'.
Comparison
Form | Example (with adjective nac 'big') |
---|---|
Comparative of inferiority | linac |
Comparative of superiority | denac |
Superlative of inferiority | tonac |
Superlative of superiority | runac |
Equative | sönac |
There is no comparative conjunction: ‘X less-big Y’, 'X more-big Y', ‘X equally-big Y’, ‘X least-big Y’, 'X most-big Y'.
Verbal Morphology
Person
See possessive suffixes above; third person singular is marked with a null morpheme -0.
Aspect
Examples are with the verb keli 'to speak', adjective kek 'blue', or vila 'having reflected/illuminated light'.
Aspect | Example |
---|---|
Perfect | kel |
Imperfect (3) | kile |
Habitual | kelim |
Inceptive | kelöt |
Inchoative | keköt |
Causative | kelmit |
Cessative | kelos |
Pausative | keled |
Resumptive | kelyb |
Protractive | kelek |
Iterative | kelaeh |
Random | kelav |
Frequentative | kelüt |
Experiential | kelau |
Volitional (4) | hyle |
Intensive | vilöc |
Moderative | vilok |
Attenuative | vilats |
Crescendo | vilun |
Decrescendo | vilith |
(3) For imperfect, add the person endings and substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.
(4) For volitional, change the height of the first vowel: i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, y > a, a > y, o > u, u > o.
Mood
Imperative (5) | Kile! |
Subjunctive | kelets |
Negative | e kel |
Obligative | keljan |
Abilitative | Keloc |
Interrogative | Kelocok? |
(5) See the rules of imperfect aspect formation above.
Valency
The suffix -yth converts intransitive verb to its transitive form, or vice versa.
Voice
Active | kel |
Passive | kelen |
Reflexive | keljo |
Reciprocal | kelami |
Switch-Reference
'to have'
Kosi has no verb meaning 'to have'. Instead, it uses periphrasis: hasmi kelah 'My house exists'.
Derivation
Verbal noun | lak 'book' (< lek- 'to read'), hesti 'goodness' (< hasti 'good') |
Gerund | lakka 'an act of reading' (< lek- 'to read'), myska 'an act of singing' (< mys- 'to sing') |
Verb | tul- 'to burn' (< tuli 'fire'), mys- 'to sing' (< mys 'music/song') |
Adjective | mysu 'musical' (< mys 'music/song'), kal 'linguistic' (< kel 'language') |
Perfect active participle | leki |
Perfect passive participle | lekin |
Imperfect active participle (6) | like |
Imperfect passive participle (7) | liken |
Personal participle | lekemba |
(6) Substitute the root vowel with the ending -i and -i with the root vowel.
(7) Repeat (6), and add the suffix -n.
Syntax
Basic word order is SOV. Adjectives follow their head - numerals are exceptions. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kile man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', esmi es 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'.
Lexicon
Kosi | English |
---|---|
abad | white |
abit- | to live, to inhabit |
ad- | to give, to add |
ada | branch |
adi | sheep |
ajan- | to offer |
al- | to stand (to be standing) |
alit- | to cease, to discontinue, to quit, to stop, to terminate, to end, to die |
alun- | to sleep |
am- | to like, to love |
anaja | brother (of a male person) |
anak | child |
andin | dog |
apal | shelf |
apatmen | apartment, flat |
areba | sister (of a male person) |
at | door, gate |
atap | roof, ceiling |
atetis | future |
avan | cloud, clump, part, chunk, piece |
avi | bird |
badan | body |
bajan | hollow |
banjak | much, many, numerous, lots |
banjak vahtu | frequently, (lit.) many times |
barat | loyal |
baru | new, recent |
basah | wet |
baerak | flag, banner |
beh- | to meet |
behi | cow |
bentsa | same, equal |
berat | difficult, tedious, heavy, hard, complex, advanced, interesting, intelligent |
beressi | special, important |
betü | letter, character |
bin- | to create, to construct, to build, to invent, to draw |
bisyt- | to prove |
bo | wine |
bos | chief, leader, boss |
buk | book |
bukas | open |
bulan | moon |
bulat | round, circular |
butuh- | to need |
ceran | liquid |
cütet | city, town |
cütet sedik | village |
dekat | short, brief, low, shallow, near(by), close, slender, narrow, thin |
des- | to dislike |
dme | tomorrow |
dob- | to throw, to toss |
dolos- | to work |
dos- | to win |
duha | also |
duna | world, planet, home |
e | no |
e ad- | to remove, to subtract, to delete |
e basah | dry |
e bentsa | different, eccentric |
e bukas | closed |
e duha | only |
e kaja | poor, impoverished |
e komn | rare |
e mahal | cheap |
e nacur | unnatural, abnormal, strange |
e ramah | mean, unkind |
e tista | dirty, murky, untidy |
ek | sky |
ek ves | rain, (lit.) sky water |
emba | person |
entis | past |
eraldi | weather, climate |
erin- | to touch |
es- | to eat |
eskib- | to write |
et- | to understand, to comprehend |
ev | year |
ha | tree |
ha loka | forest, (lit.) tree place |
hal- | to hear, to listen, to perceive audibly |
hari | stone, rock |
has | house |
hasti | good, well |
hat | back, dorsum |
hato | cake, pie, pastry |
hejes | right, correct, true |
hes- | to paint |
het | seven, week |
hetelen | wrong, incorrect |
hibas | defective (having defects) |
hiltsa | key |
hiset- | to pay |
hitam | black |
hodit- | to translate |
hojo | river |
hondol- | to think (act of thinking) |
hul | mood, atmosphere, emotion |
huth | left (as opposed to right) |
hü | grass |
hü loka | field, park, (lit.) grass place |
idö | time (the fourth dimension) |
idöta | present, now |
ildis | star |
iloba | nephew, neice, grandchild |
is- | to drink |
isel- | to taste (perceive by the sense of taste) |
ja | yes |
jalan | finger, toe |
jatyk- | to continue |
jats- | to play |
jauh | long, lengthy, tall, high, deep, far, fat, wide, thick, distance |
ka | arm |
kaja | rich, wealthy |
kala | fish (of saltwater) |
kalimat | sentence (cf. phrase) |
kama | room, chamber |
kamus | dictionary |
kanal | canal, channel, ditch |
kanto | office |
kap- | to receive, to obtain, to get |
karom | three |
kata | word |
kats- | to try, to attempt, to endeavor |
kaüt- | to use (to make use of) |
kedi | cat |
kedvel- | to enjoy |
kek | blue |
kel- | to speak, to talk, to say, to make a proposition, to ask (a question), to state a question |
kel- e kut | to complain, (lit.) express dissatisfaction |
kelah- | to exist |
kele bin | grammar, (lit.) language's structure |
kepala | head, pot |
keras | firm, steady; loud |
keris- | to seek |
kes- | to begin, to start, to commence |
kessa | eight |
ket | two |
ket- | to cook |
kilap | comforting |
kinjo | lunch, midday meal |
komat- | to fight, to combat |
komn | common |
koran | early, before, already, previous, quick, fast, rapid |
kosmo | space (outer space) |
kot | happy, contented, satisfied |
könjü | easy, light (opposite of heavy), soft, simple, basic, primitive, dull, stupid |
kös- | to thank |
Kös! (colloquial), Kösmital! (to one person; formal), Kösmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) | Thanks!, Thank you! |
köv- | to follow, to go after |
kuras | monarch |
kurase lan | princess |
kurase mas | prince |
küeta | president |
kül- | to send, to dispatch, to transmit, to convey |
küs- | to greet |
Küs! (colloquial), Küsmital! (to one person; formal), Küsmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) | Hello!, Hi! |
lah- | to run (to move quickly) |
lambat | late, after, still, next, slow |
lan | girl, daughter |
lantae | floor |
lat- | to see |
lecem | bread, grain |
lehd- | to say farewell/goodbye to (opposite of küs) |
Lehd! (colloquial), Lehdmital! (to one person; formal), Lehdmiütl! (to more than one person; formal) | Bye!, Goodbye! |
leho | window |
lek- | to read |
leske | lesson |
likaht- | to move |
likaht- ...-iv | to come, (lit.) to move from |
likaht- ...-tah | to go, (lit.) to move to |
likaht- ot loka | to leave, (lit.) move elsewhere |
likaht- sabe kepalai | to walk, (lit.) to move by foot |
loka | place, location |
lop- | to steal |
lora | flower, plant, vegetation |
lora loka | garden, (lit.) plant place |
lot- | to hope |
luh- | to pull someone's hair |
lun- | to clean the plate and lick the fingers, to eat to one's heart's content |
mahal | expensive, costly |
man | man, father |
man kuras | king |
manman | grandfather (paternal) |
mannü | grandmother (paternal) |
mapana | boyfriend, husband |
mas | boy, son |
me | ocean, sea |
melek | warm |
meret | size |
mil | one thousand |
minut | minute |
molte | all, every, each |
molte loka | everywhere, (lit.) every place |
molte vahtu | always, (lit.) every time |
mon- | to tell |
mon- hejes kal | lie (tell an untruth) |
mosso- | to smile |
mys | music, song |
nac | big |
nacur | natural |
naeru | awe and respect for something dangerous |
neri | four |
net- | to laugh |
njama | meat, flesh, skin |
nol | zero, none, nothing |
nol loka | nowhere, (lit.) every place |
nol vahtu | never (lit.) no time |
nü | woman, mother |
nü kuras | queen |
nüman | grandfather (maternal) |
nünü | grandmother (maternal) |
nüpana | girlfriend, wife |
opp- | to learn, to study |
ora | hour |
os- | to buy |
ot | other |
ot loka | elsewhere, (lit.) another place |
ot vahtu | again, (lit.) another time |
ö | evening, night |
örek | old |
öt | five |
pa(k)- (prefixed to verb) | Please (contracted form of the defective verb root *pak- 'to ask (a favour)') |
padat | dense |
pana | partner (of either gender in either a dating or married relationship) |
para | money, currency, coins, cost |
pas- | to spend |
pemin- | to govern, to administrate |
pes- | to consider, to ponder |
piros | red |
ramah | kind, nice |
rendah | low (in pitch) |
repon- | to answer, to respond, to reply |
riba | fish (of freshwater) |
rih- | to laugh (maliciously) |
sab | six; leg |
sabe kepala | foot, (lit.) head of the leg |
sahil | beach, shore, coast |
sakit | ill, sick, unhealthy |
sal- | to sing |
sav- | to be familiar with |
sedik | small, little |
sek | chair |
sekn | second (time) |
setn | certain |
sim | eye(ball) |
sir- | to cry |
skol | school |
sol | sun, day, today |
sön | young |
söndörü | beautiful, pretty, handsome, good-looking, nice-looking, aesthetically pleasing |
sötet | dark |
spital | hospital |
stoj- | awaken |
surat | letter (written message addressed to a person or organization) |
suven- | to remember, to recall |
taht- | to inspire |
tal- | to find |
tala | table, desk; flat surface |
tam- | to attack |
tan- | to dance |
tanan | hand |
tat- | to keep, to retain |
taua | tower |
tema | subject, theme, topic |
tenap | yesterday |
tes- | to put, to place |
tev | healthy |
tis | sad |
tista | clean, clear, tidy |
to | lake |
toko | store, shop |
tud- | to know (a fact) |
tul- | to burn |
tulli | wind, breeze |
tset- | to help, to assist, to aid |
tsin- | to do, to make |
ulis | street |
unisti | university |
utas | to travel |
ül- | to sit |
ülke | nation, state, country |
ürün | merchandise, products, goods |
üs | one |
üt- | to hit, to strike |
vaco | dinner, supper |
vah- | to wait |
val- | to choose |
van- | to float |
vahtu | time, occurrence |
ved | green |
ved- | to defend |
velyt- | to forget |
velyt- loka | to lose, to misplace, (lit.) to forget [the] location [of] |
ves | water |
vidam | funny, comical |
vila | having reflected/illuminated light |
visit- | to visit |
voimik | possible, maybe |