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'''English''' is a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] language, serving basically as the lingua franca over much of the world; the most notable English-speaking countries are the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.
'''English''' is a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] language, serving basically as the lingua franca over much of the world; the most notable English-speaking countries are the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.


==Phonology==
=Stages of English=
===Consonants===
There are 3 primary stages of English.  A fourth, is a brief period of transition time between Middle English and Modern English, known as Early Modern English.  They are as follows:
{|
[[Anglo-Saxon]] (also known as '''Old English''')
| [[Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] [[voiced bilabial stop|b]] || [[Voiceless dental stop|t]] [[Voiced dental stop|d]] || [[voiceless velar stop|k]] [[voiced velar stop|ɡ]]
[[Middle English]]
|-
[[Early Modern English]]
| [[bilabial nasal|m]] || [[alveolar nasal|n]] || [[velar nasal|ŋ]]
[[Modern English]]
|-
| || [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|ʧ]] [[voiced postalveolar affricate|ʤ]]
|-
| [[voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] [[voiced labiodental fricative|v]] || [[voiceless dental fricative|θ]] [[voiced dental fricative|ð]] [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] [[voiced alveolar fricative|z]] [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]] [[voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]] || ([[voiceless velar fricative|x]]) || [[voiceless glottal fricative|h]]
|-
|  || [[alveolar lateral|l]] r [[palatal approximant|j]] [[labiovelar approximant|w]]  
|}


The consonants of English tend to be more stable cross-dialectally than the vowels.
==The dates of the changes==
 
The Anglo-Saxon language formed from invading groups of Angles and Saxons from Northern Germany to England.  It was also affected by the [[Celtic]] languages around it, and from a heavy [[Old Norse]] influx from invading Danish Vikings. <br>
The phonemic status of [ŋ] is sometimes disputed, instead being replaced by a rule /nɡ → ŋ/ at the end of a morpheme.  There remain, however, a few words where this may not apply, such as "hangar", though this may be due to [[metanalysis]] as hang + -ar.
<br>
 
The start of the Middle English era is marked by the battle of Hastings in 1066.  The French Normans (originally Vikings who were given land and gold in to protect France from other Vikings, Norman = North man) lead by William the Conqueror won the battle and took over the island from there.   
The voiceless stops are aspirated. In some dialects aspiration is more salient than voicing for distinguishing stops.
 
The general American value of /r/ is &#91;[[retroflex approximant|ɻ]]&#93;.
 
===Important allophones===
* &#91;[[alveolar tap|ɾ]]&#93; for /d/ between vowels in American English
* &#91;[[glottal stop|ʔ]]&#93; for /t/, especially finally, but intervocalically in some places
* &#91;[[voiceless palatal fricative|ç]]&#93; for /h/ before /j/.
* &#91;[[voiceless labiovelar fricative|ʍ]]&#93; for /hw/ in some dialects. (In other dialects it either remains [hw] is not distinguished from /w/, even in dialects that otherwise retain /h/.)
* unaspirated voiceless consonants after /s/.
* &#91;ʋ̴&#93; is used for /r/ by some speakers.
 
==Notable features of English==
* Most verbs cannot normally participate in processes such as [[negation]]; for this auxiliary verbs are used.  E.g.: to negate ''"I ate the cat."'':
*:''*I ate not the cat.''  (possible, but archaic)
*:''I didn't eat the cat.'' (auxiliary "do" takes tense and negation marking)


==Languages based on English==
==Languages based on English==

Revision as of 12:58, 15 July 2008

English is a Germanic language, serving basically as the lingua franca over much of the world; the most notable English-speaking countries are the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.

Stages of English

There are 3 primary stages of English. A fourth, is a brief period of transition time between Middle English and Modern English, known as Early Modern English. They are as follows: Anglo-Saxon (also known as Old English) Middle English Early Modern English Modern English

The dates of the changes

The Anglo-Saxon language formed from invading groups of Angles and Saxons from Northern Germany to England. It was also affected by the Celtic languages around it, and from a heavy Old Norse influx from invading Danish Vikings.

The start of the Middle English era is marked by the battle of Hastings in 1066. The French Normans (originally Vikings who were given land and gold in to protect France from other Vikings, Norman = North man) lead by William the Conqueror won the battle and took over the island from there.

Languages based on English

Creoles and natural descendants

Constructed languages

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