Limli: Syntax

와ㅞ 포와 레 이 림리 레

Wawe Fowa le i Limli le

A GRAMMAR OF LIMLI

Table of Phonemes

MOA	nasals				stops					fricatives				approximants			vowels
IPA	/m/	/n/	/ŋ/		/p/	/t/	/k/	/ʔ/		/ɸ/	/β/	/h/		/w/	/j/		/i/	/e/	/ä/	/o/	/u/
Hangul	ㅁ	ㄴ	ㅋ		ㅂ	ㅌ	ㄱ	ㄲ		ㅍ	ㅃ	ㅎ		1	2		이	에	아	오	우
Latin	m	n	ŋ		p	t	k	ʻ		f	v	h		w	y		i	e	a	o	u
Name	Ma 마	Na 나	Ŋa 카		Pa 바	Ta 타	Ka 가	ʻa 까		Fa 파	Va 빠	Ha 하		Wa 와	Ya 야		i 이	e 에	a 아	o 오	u 우

Notes

• ¹ The compound vowels are used for <w>, e.g., ㅘ, wa.
• ² The iotified vowels are used for <y>, e.g., 요, yo.

Grammar

General Notes

• 01. The word order in Limli is VSO, verb-subject-object.
• 02. The word is accented on the penultimate syllable.
• 03. Limli syllables have the structure (C)V. All consonants can appear in the initial position.
• 04. There are no diphthongs.
• 05. In Limli words are not specific to any one function. Function is determined by the absence or presence of pronouns, prepositions, particles, etc., e.g., the word lońo, make, cause.

Verb: I made/caused the fire. The pronoun ilo and the past particle u show that lońo is a verb.

U	lońo	ilo	ui	isu	ae.
PST	cause	I	OBJ	fire	the

Noun: The rain is the cause of the flood. The definite article ae shows that lońo is a noun.

Loyi	ae	lońo	ae	yitile	ae.
rain	the	cause	the	flood	the

Preposition: Because of the rain I stayed home. The particle ve shows that lońo is part of a compound preposition.

U	yaka	ilo	ao	sita	ya	lońo	ve	loyi	ae
PST	remain	I	at	home	INDF	because	PRT	rain	the

Conjunction: Because he is sick, I can't go. With no indicators, lońo is a conjunction.

Fia	ito	ilo	ta	lońo	vui	ńivilu.
able	go	I	not	because	he	sick

Verbs - Ńiyu Hoǵo le 끼유 호코 레

• 06. Verbs are a class of words that convey an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand).
• 07. There is no change in the form of the verb for subject agreement. Other semantic notions are expressed by verbal particles.
• 08. The base form of the verb refers to the present tense, the future tense, or an habitual action:

He speaks Limli.

Wawe	vui	ui	Limli	ya
speak	he	OBJ	Limli	INDF

• 09. The verb particle u indicates the past tense:

The woman arrived yesterday.

U	yiawe	sisu	ae	ua.tihi
PST	arrive	woman	the	before.day

• 10. The verb particle ke indicates that an action occured before another past action, i.e., the past perfect tense:

I ate (had eaten) before I left.

Ke	liu	eo	ńoi	u	ito	ifo
PSTPRF	eat	I	before	PST	go	away

• 11. To indicate that an action or state is in progress at the moment of speech, the progressive verb particle (PRG) fe is used:

The woman is arriving now.

Fe	yiawe	sisu	ae	miki.
PRG	arrive	woman	the	now

This particle is also used to express an action or state happening in the past simultaneously with another past action or state:

It was raining when I arrived.

U	fe	loyi	iyai	u	yiawe	ilo.
PST	PRG	rain	when	PST	arrive	I

• 12. Modal auxiliaries, and verbs with a dependent infinitive, are placed immediately before a plus the main verb. They may be preceded by verbal particles:

Ability: fia, be able:

Can you swim?

Fia	a	hio	hea	mau?
be.able	INF	swim	you	Q

Wish: yuyu, want, wish, desire:

I didn't want to get up.

U	yuyu	a	ǵuhu	ilo	ta
PST	want	INF	get.up	I	not

Permission: foloi, to permit:

He permitted her to leave.

U	foloi	a	vui	a	ito	ifo	vui.
PST	permit	INF	he	go	away	she

Preference: vutu, prefer, would rather:

I'd rather drink water.

Vutu	a	umo	ilo	ui	kiyu	ya
prefer	INF	drink	I	OBJ	water	INDF

Habitualness: vana, usual:

I usually get up early.

Vana	a	ǵuhu	ilo	ńeifi.
usual	INF	get.up	I	early

Obligation: ǵeme, have to, ought, must:

I have to awaken her.

Ǵeme	a	siliwi	ilo	ui	vui
ought	INF	awaken	I	OBJ	her

Need: ńifai, need:

The child needs to sleep.

Ńifai	a	ńea	laulu	ae
need	INF	sleep	child	the

• 13. Mood is a grammatical category by which the speaker expresses his attitude toward what he is saying.
• 14. The subjunctive mood is formed with the verb marker te:

She may love me.

Te	weyi	vui	ui	ilo
SBJ	love	she	OBJ	me

• 15. The imperative mood uses the base form of the verb without a subject:

Love me.

Weyi	ui	ilo
love	OBJ	me

A more polite form of the imperative uses the phrase ńa fia, if able, rather like 'please': If able, love me.

Ńa	fia	weyi	ui	ilo.
if	able	love	OBJ	me

Ńa fia is also the polite response when given a command.

• 16. The cohortative and jussive moods are formed with the particle lui with the appropriate pronoun following:

Let him sing.

Lui	kiufu	vui
JUS	sing	him

• 17. The conjunction ńa, if, is used to express conditions.

If the action or event linked to the condition is likely to occur or is real, no verb marker is used in the conditional clause:

If the breadfruits are good, I'll buy some.

Ńa	hoto	le	yoe	yele	ilo	ui	afi.
if	breadfruit	the	good	buy	I	OBJ	some

If the conditional action or event is doubtful or hypothetical, the verb particle ke is used in the protasis and ǵe in the apodosis:

If the breadfruits were good, I'd buy some.

Ńa	ke	yoe	hoto	le	ǵe	yele	ilo	ui	afi.
if	PRO	good	breadfruit	the	APO	buy	I	OBJ	some

• 18. The passive form of the verb is formed with the verb particle sui:

The banana was cooked.

U	sui	fomo	ńiuhi	ae
PST	PASS	cook	banana	the

• 19. A verbal noun is formed by using the definite article with the base word. This verbal noun functions as an infinitive or gerund:

Swimming strengthens my limbs.

Uliu	lońo	hio	ae	ui	titi	le	ilo
strong	make	swim	the	OBJ	limb	the	my

• 20. Sentence negation is indicated with the word ta:

The woman is not here.

Sisu	ae	lemau	ta.
woman	the	here	not

• 21. A question is indicated by the use of the interrogative particle (Q) mau:

Do I love you?

Weyi	ilo	ui	hea	mau?
love	I	OBJ	you	Q

The interrogative particle is not used when the sentence contains an interrogative word.

• 22. Dependent verbs, such as infinitives and gerunds, follow the verb or adjective upon which they are dependent:

I was afraid to touch a toad.

U	ńihu	a	yehe	ilo	ui	ǵitili	ya.
PST	fear	INF	touch	I	OBJ	toad	INDF

A direct object is placed before the infinitive:

I wanted him to go.

U	yuyu	a	ui	vui	ito	ilo.
PST	want	INF	OBJ	him	go	I

• 23. There is no copulative verb to be. The subject and predicate are stated, predicate first:

The child is in the house.

Ao	sita	ae	laulu	ae
In	house	the	child	the

If the predicate is a simple adjective, it is treated as a verb:

The woman was happy.

U	ohetu	sisu	ae.
PST	happy	woman	the

The verb aya is used at the beginning of a sentence to identify and define:

It's an eagle.

Aya	hiafe	ya.
there.be	eagle	INDF

There was a storm.

U	aya	isi	ya.
PST	there.be	storm	INDF

• 24. There is no verb to have. This is expressed with a prepositional phrase using i, of:

I have a flower.

Ǵoili	ya	i	eo.
flower	INDF	of	me

This flower belongs to me.

Fama	ǵoili	ae	i	eo.
this	flower	the	of	me

Nouns - Yunei Hoǵo le 유네이 호코 레

• 25. Nouns are a class of words that function as the names of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.
• 26. There are no noun classes in Limli.
• 27. The direct object precedes the indirect object:

I will give the pearl to the woman.

Yiku	ilo	ui	ńeńu	ae	a	sisu	ae.
give	I	OBJ	pearl	the	to	woman	the

• 28. Possession is indicated with the preposition i. The genitive noun follows the head noun:

The boy's basket is empty.

Ǵofoi	fiuli	ae	i	fińi	ae.
empty	basket	the	of	boy	the

• 29. Plurality is not indicated on the noun. It is indicated by changing the definite article ae to le: ǵifo, stone; ǵifo ae, the stone; ǵifo le, the stones.

If plurality is evident, the definite article is not used: fovi ǵifo, two stones; taya ǵifo, many stones; weǵo ya laulu ya, a crowd of children.

A possessive pronoun follows its noun:

fiuli hea, your basket; fiuli le hea, your baskets.

• 30. Abstract nouns are derived from verbs and adjectives by using a determiner with them: leta, short; leta ya, shortness; fuńi, begin, fuńi ya, beginning.
• 31. Abstract nouns are derived from other nouns with the suffix -ni: brother, foili; brotherhood, foilini.
• 32. Nouns naming a person characterized by an adjective are formed with the word fio, person: heǵue, young; heǵue fio, youth; liyu, old; liyu fio, elder.
• 33. The agent of a verb is also formed with the word fio, person: ońata, sing; ońata fio ae, the singer.
• 34. The instrument for performing the action of a verb is formed with the word ńai, thing: helu, cut; helu ńai ae, the knife.
• 35. Nouns are formed from verbs with the addition of an adjective or a determiner: hili, laugh; hili vui, his laugh, his laughter:

Laughter came from the house.

U	yiawe	hili	ya	oi	sita	ae
PST	come	laugh	INDF	from	house	the

• 36. Diminutives of nouns are formed with the prefix fu: yikiu, river; fuyukiu, stream.
• 37. A noun may be specified as masculine or feminine by using the adjectives fimi and oyi respectively: ńimo, bird; fimi ńimo, cock; oyi ńimo, hen.
• 38. Collective nouns are formed from nouns or adjectives by using the word weǵo, group: weǵo ae ńimo ya, the flock of birds; weǵo ae uli ya, the school of fish; weǵo ya rotu ya, an archipelago.
• 39. Nouns may be used to modify other nouns; the modifying noun precedes the modified noun: ńihomi fuyukiu ae, the mountain stream.

Modifiers - Silila Hoǵo le 시리라 호코 레

• 40. In Limli grammar adjectives, adverbs and determiners are classed together as modifiers.

Adjectives - Siliyo Hoǵo le 시리요 호코 레

• 41. Adjectives are a class of words which qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.
• 42. Adjectives and determiners precede the nouns they qualify.
• 43. The one degree of comparison, the comparative, is formed by reduplication: tiyu, big; tiyutiyu, bigger, biggest.

If the adjective has more than two syllables, only the last two are duplicated: heǵue, young; heǵueǵue, younger, youngest.

The standard of comparison follows the adjective. In comparisons than is translated by the preposition iu, with respect to:

He is younger than I.

Heǵueǵue	vui	iu	ilo.
CMPR~young	he	than	I

He runs faster than I do.

Eńi	vui	fawafawa	iu	eo.
run	he	CMPR~fast	than	I

I can run faster than he can.

Fia	a	eńi	ilo	fawafawa	iu	fia	vui.
able	run	I	CMPR~fast	than	able	he

• 44. The absolute superlative is formed by reduplication of only the first syllable.

He runs very fast.

Eńi	fafawa	vui.
run	ASUP~fast	he

• 45. Negative comparison is formed with the adverb ańu, less: fisu, distant; ańu fisu, less/least distant.
• 46. The comparison of equality is formed with the word tufa, as:

This flower is as red as blood.

Sawe	tufa	fefe	ya	fami	ǵoili	ae.
red	as	blood	INDF	this	flower	the

• 47. Participles are a form of a verb that is used to modify a noun, noun phrase, verb, or verb phrase, playing a role similar to an adjective or adverb.
• 48. There are two participles in Limli.

a. The present participle is formed by using the present form of the verb as an adjective: hio uli ae, the swimming fish. This also means "the fish is swimming". Context will distinguish and the form with the participle would have a predicate: The swimming fish was sick.

U	ńivilu	hio	uli	ae
PST	sick	swim	fish	the

b. The past participle is formed by using the past form of the verb as an adjective: u feyo kili ae, the sunken canoe.

• 49. Nouns of material may be used like adjectives: ǵifo sita ae, the stone house.
• 50. Word negation is indicated by the use of the prefix ta-: ohetu, happy; taohetu, unhappy.
• 51. Adjectives denoting similarity, likeness or resemblance to what is named in the noun root (-ish, -like) are formed with the prefix sili-: ńimo, bird; silińimo, like a bird.
• 52. Adjectives with the meaning without are expressed with the preposition eu, without: hetimi, hope; eu hetimi ya, hopeless.
• 53. The adjective precedes the dependent verb:

I am happy to help.

Ohetu	a	leloi	ilo
happy	to	help	I

Determiners - Yeyete Hoǵo le 예예데 호코 레

• 54. Determiners are a class of words that serve to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. They may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, etc.
• 55. The singular definite article is ae and the plural is le. These are placed after the noun: sisu, woman; sisu ae, the woman.
• 56. The singular indefinite article is ya and the plural is ye. It is placed after the noun: sisu, woman; sisu ya, a woman.

The indefinite article is also used when no other modifier is present:

Morning comes early.

Yiawe	ńeifi	yuili	ya
come	early	morning	INDFSG

Mornings come early.

Yiawe	ńeifi	yuili	ye
come	early	morning	INDFPL

• 57. Numerals precede the noun in the absence of the definite article:

Three women are cooking.

Fomo	feto	sisu.
cook	three	woman

They follow the noun if the noun is preceded by or followed by a determiner:

These three women are cooking.

Fomo	fama	sisu	ae	feto
cook	this	woman	the	three

• 58. The demonstrative determiners are fama...ae, this; fama...le, these; and lama...ae, that, lama...le, those: lama ńimo ae, that bird; fama ǵoili le, these flowers.
• 59. The elective indefinite determiner is fafi, any.
• 60. The assertive indefinite determiner is afi, some.
• 61. The alternative determiner is afiyu, other.
• 62. The distributive determiner is fihu, each.

Numerals - Yato le 야도 레

• 63. Limli has an octal numeral system.

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
ivi 이비	fovi 포비	feto 페도	fińe 피께	ǵia 키아	eme 에메	yufo 유포	kimo 기모

• 64. The numerals 9-15 are formed by suffixing the proper cardinal to kimo, eight: eight + one, etc..

9	10	11	12	13	14	15
kimoivi	kimofovi	kimofeto	kimofińe	kimoǵia	kimoeme	kimoyufo

• 65. The numerals 16-64 are formed by prefixing the proper cardinal stem to kimo, eight: two eight's, etc..

16	24	32	40	48	56	64
fovikimo	fetokimo	fińekimo	ǵiakimo	emekimo	yufokimo	kimokimo

• 66. Additional numbers are formed by adding the needed number to the cardinal stem: fovikimoivi, 2 8's + 1, 17; ǵiakimofeto, 5 8's + 3, 43.
• 66. Compounds of 64 can be made by prefixing the proper cardinal stem to kimokimo: fovikimokimo, 2x8x8, 128, but the Limli very rarely need to count that high.
• 67. The ordinals are made by prefixing fo- to the cardinal stem: fofovi, second; fofovikimokimo, 128^th.
• 68. The adverbial numbers are formed with the word lu, time : ivi lu, once; kimo lu, eight times (v. #29).

Adverbs - Fulini Hoǵo le 푸리니 호코 레

• 70. Adverbs are a class of words that modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a determiner, a noun phrase, a clause, or a sentence. They typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc.
• 71. They have the same form as the adjective, but follow the verb they modify: fehi lima ae, the brave man;

He acted bravely.

U	ńiyu	fehi	vui
PST	act	brave	he

• 72. The comparative of these adverbs is formed in the same way as for adjectives; fehi, bravely; fehifehi, more bravely.

Pronouns - Wusu Hoǵo le ᆍ수 호코 레

• 73. Pronouns are a class of words that substitute for a noun or noun phrase. There are seven types of pronouns in Limli.
• 74. The personal pronouns have only the one form which is used for the subject, the object and the possessive.

	Subject	Object	Adjective
ilo	I	me	my
hea	you (sg.)	you	your
vui	he, she, it	him, her, it	his, her, its
ńile	we	us	our
hele	you (pl.)	you	your
tile	they	them	their

• 75. There are three interrogative pronouns: kiu, who; iyi, what; and ayai, which.
• 76. There are no relative pronouns. Two independent clauses are spoken:

I have a friend who speaks Limli.

Yei	ya	i	ilo.	Wawe	vui	ui	Limli	wawe	ae.
friend	INDF	of	me	speak	he	OBJ	Limli	language	the

• 77. The reflexive pronouns are translated by using the personal pronoun as both subject and object:

I hurt myself.

Siwi	ilo	ui	ilo.
hurt	I	OBJ	me

• 78. The intensive pronouns are formed with the adjective suwe, self, placed before the pronoun:

I myself will go.

Ito	suwe	ilo
go	self	I

• 79. The demonstrative pronouns are the same as the demonstrative determiners, famae, this; famale, these; lamae, that; lamale, those:

I want those.

Yuyu	ilo	ui	lamale
Want	I	OBJ	those

• 80. The indefinite pronouns are made from the indefinite determiners:

fafi fio, anyone, anybody, fafi ńai, anything

afi fio, someone, somebody; afi ńai, something

liwa fio, no one, nobody; liwa ńai, nothing

ǵio fio, every one, every body; ǵio ńai, every thing

• 81. There are no possessive pronouns; the concept is expressed with a possessive expression, i + pronoun:

This is your flower, that (one) is mine.

Fama	ǵoili	ae	i	hea	lamae	i	ilo
this	flower	the	of	you	that	of	me

Prepositions - Ńoi Hoǵo le 꼬이 호코 레

• 82. Limli uses prepositions, a class of words that express spatial or temporal relations (in, under, towards, before) or mark various semantic roles (of, for).
• 83. The prepositions are classed as either simple or compound.

a. Simple prepositions are single words:

The egg is on the mat.

Yalu	ae	ao	siti	ae.
egg	the	on	mat	the

b. Compound prepositions are composed of a noun and the particle ve:

Our village is near the mountain.

Lete	ilo	le	lele	ve	ńihomi	ae.
village	we	PL	near	PTC	mountain	the

Conjunctions - Yefe Hoǵo le 예페 호코 레

• 84. A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases or clauses.
• 85. In Limli there are three types of conjunctions.

a. A coordinate conjunction joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance:

My brother and I like coconuts and breadfruits:

Wali	foili	ilo	na	ilo	ui	muho	le	na	hoto	le.
like	brother	my	and	I	OBJ	coconut	PL	and	breadfruit	PL

b. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join two or more items of equal syntactic importance:

You will either eat your supper or go to bed.

Ǵiyi	fumi	hea	ǵiyi	filefe
either	sup	you	or	lie.down

c. Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause and a dependent clause:

Although she is sick, she ate her breakfast.

Yilei	ńivilu	vui	u	ǵiwilo.
Although	sick	she	PST	eat.breakfast

Octal Table

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
ivi 이비	fovi 포비	feto 페토	fińe 피께	ǵia 키아	eme 에메	yufo 유포	kimo 기모
9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16
kimoivi	kimofovi	kimofeto	kimofińe	kimoǵia	kimoeme	kimoyufo	fovikimo
17	18	19	20	21	22	23	24
fovikimoivi	fovikimofovi	fovikimofeto	fovikimofińe	fovikimoǵia	fovikimoeme	fovikimoyufo	fetokimo
25	26	27	28	29	30	31	32
fetokimoivi	fetokimofovi	fetokimofeto	fetokimofińe	fetokimoǵia	fetokimoeme	fetokimoyufo	fińekimo
33	34	35	36	37	38	39	40
fińekimoivi	fińekimofovi	fińekimofeto	fińekimofińe	fińekimoǵia	fińekimoeme	fińekimoyufo	ǵiakimo
41	42	43	44	45	46	47	48
ǵiakimoivi	ǵiakimofovi	ǵiakimofeto	ǵiakimofińe	ǵiakimoǵia	ǵiakimoeme	ǵiakimoyufo	emekimo
49	50	51	52	53	54	55	56
emekimoivi	emekimofovi	emekimofeto	emekimofińe	emekimoǵia	emekimoeme	emekimoyufo	yufokimo
57	58	59	60	61	62	63	64
yufokimoivi	yufokimofovi	yufokimofeto	yufokimofińe	yufokimoǵia	yufokimoeme	yufokimoyufo	kimokimo