User:Bukkia/sandboxIII

Kī́rtako is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named Kī́rtako languages. Two languages belong to this group and stem from Kī́rtako. It has an alphabetic script.

Phonology

Consonants

The consonant system distinguishes 20 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:

The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: voiceless, voiced, and aspirated, even though the voiced sub-group includes only the phoneme [g].

The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, although less rich, like the group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants. The glottal consonant, [ʔ], while formally a plosive, is traditionally included in the fricative group. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value and they are never regarded as semivowels.

Vowels

There are 6 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:

IPA						Transcription
[i]	[iː˩˧] [iː˧˩]			[u]	[uː˩˧] [uː˧˩]	i	ī́ ī̀			u	ū́ ū̀
[e]	[eː˩˧] [eː˧˩]			[o]	[oː˩˧] [oː˧˩]	e	ḗ ḕ			o	ṓ ṑ
				[ɑ]						ɑ
		[a]	[aː˩˧] [aː˧˩]					a	ā́ ā̀

5 vowels have a short form and a long form. Each long form distinguishes two types: one with a rising tone and one with a falling tone.

The open-back phoneme, [ɑ], makes no distinction, neither in length nor in tone.

Stress

The stress is firmly on the first syllable of the word root.

[ˈkɑ.wo.kow]

Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.

Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.

[ˌpi.ke.ˈmeː˩˧.ʔi]

Tones

The long vowels make a distinction in tone, between a rising [Vː˩˧] tone and a falling [Vː˧˩] tone. Every long vowel has a tonal feature, which is always marked in the script.

pikemḗʔi [ˌpi.ke.ˈmeː˩˧.ʔi]

The vowels with the falling tone are found mostly at the end of words, due to the loss of a previous final consonant. They can be found, quite infrequently, in a medial position inside of a word, mostly in loanwords.

ʔimḗɣɑme - ʔimḕ [ˌʔi.meː˩˧.ɣɑ.me] - [ˌʔi.meː˧˩]

Syllabic structure

The basic syllable structure in Kī́rtako is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:

1. A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:

*[a]
[u.ˈma.tsoː˩˧.ta]

1. A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:

[om]
[ˈer.tu]

1. A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.

[ˈkɑ.wo.kow]
[ˈkiː˩˧r.ta.ko]
[ˈkoː˩˧w]

1. CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.

[ˈko.wɑ.ka.ka]
[ˈnɑ]

Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.

Diphthongs

There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.

Typological structure

Kī́rtako is a morphologically agglutinative language, with an additional but strongly marked introflexive feature, realized in verbal roots.

The basic word order is essentially SOV (Subject-Object-Verb).

phū́kali mū́ke lī́lopɑt
(the) person sees (the) cow

The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the modifier-head (or head-final) type:

• object - verb
• noun - postposition
• adjective - noun
• relative clause - noun

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns in Kī́rtako language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually ends in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ɑ-, in added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.

Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or first class and inanimate nouns or second class. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:

• 1^st class: human beings, animals, deities
• 2^nd class: plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions

A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class.

For example, the word sɑño, light, shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, as the noun ñowe, love, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree.

Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.

There are two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural.

Cases

Kī́rtako nouns do decline, according to an active-stative system with 9 cases:

Case	Meaning
Agentive	This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1st class.
Passive	This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.
Ablative	This case marks primarily a natural and unintentional belonging (for example, body parts), without any sign of will of possession, or an inverse belonging. It also marks the point of origin of a movement (motion from a place). It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb.
Genitive	This case marks an intentional possession, from subjects with a clear and active will. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1st class.
Dative	This case marks primarily the indirect object. It can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place), and, in a broad sense, the final purpose of an action or a state.
Causative	This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.
Instrumental	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class.
Abessive	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing an action or being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class.
Locative	This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (stative location). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class.

The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:

1. Primary main cases: agentive, genitive
2. Secondary main cases: passive, ablative
3. Primary oblique cases: dative, causative
4. Secondary oblique cases: instrumental, abessive, locative

Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various postpositions, which can select one or more cases.

Noun declension

Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

	1st class		2nd class
	singular	plural	singular	plural
agentive	-li	-noli
passive	-	-no	-	-no
ablative	-šu	-nošu	-šu	-nošu
genitive	-ra	-nora
dative	-ɣɑ	-noɣɑ	-ɣɑ	-noɣɑ
causative	-khu	-nokhu	-khu	-nokhu
instrumental			-khɑ	-nokhɑ
abessive			-gil	-nogil
locative			-tsar	-notsar

Some examples are shown below: a 1^st class noun, papu, father, and a 2^nd class noun, sṓgo, house.

	papu		sṓgo
	singular	plural	singular	plural
agentive	papuli	papunoli
ablative	papu	papuno	sṓgo	sṓgono
passive	papušu	papunošu	sṓgošu	sṓgonošu
genitive	papura	papunora
dative	papuɣɑ	papunoɣɑ	sṓgoɣɑ	sṓgonoɣɑ
causative	papukhu	papunokhu	sṓgokhu	sṓgonokhu
instrumental			sṓgokhɑ	sṓgonokhɑ
abessive			sṓgogil	sṓgonogil
locative			sṓgotsar	sṓgonotsar

As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a 1^st class noun, while the endings for the primary main cases cannot be added to a 2^nd class noun.

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them.

jṓpā́ wī́ro
(the) young man

wī́ro jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)
(the) man is young

As the verbal copula, ʔɑñɑme, to be, can be omitted when the subject is expressed in the clause, the attributive or predicative role of an adjective can be inferred only by its own position.

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.

jṓpā́ra wī́rora rḗʔo sṓgo pinkotsar wɑkitsar mḗʔis
the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Example: rḗʔo, new

	rḗʔo
	singular	plural
agentive	rḗʔoli	rḗʔonoli
passive	rḗʔo	rḗʔono
ablative	rḗʔošu	rḗʔonošu
genitive	rḗʔora	rḗʔonora
dative	rḗʔoɣɑ	rḗʔonoɣɑ
causative	rḗʔokhu	rḗʔonokhu
instrumental	rḗʔokhɑ	rḗʔonokhɑ
abessive	rḗʔogil	rḗʔonogil
locative	rḗʔotsar	rḗʔonotsar

Comparison of qualifying adjectives

Adjectives have two comparison forms, comparative and superlative. They are formed by adding the following endings: Example: rḗʔo, new

comparative	-rṓ
superlative	-rṓtu

These ending are always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ablative case and is followed by the postposition phɑw.

wī́ro ʔṓnašu phɑw jṓpā́rṓ (ʔɑñ)
the man is younger than the woman

ʔṓna owtunošu phɑw jṓpā́rṓtu (ʔɑñ)
the woman is the youngest of/among us

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the first two persons (1^st and 2^nd) and the 3^rd person.

Both the first and the second person have indeed two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots. On the other hand, the third person has only one root.

	1st person sing.	2nd person sing.	3rd person sing.	1st person plur.	2nd person plur.	3rd person plur.
agentive	owtu	ertu	ɑktuli	owtuno	ertuno	ɑktunoli
passive	jo	nɑ	ɑktu	jono	nɑno	ɑktuno
ablative	owtušu	ertušu	ɑktušu	owtunošu	ertunošu	ɑktunošu
	jošu	nɑšu		jonošu	nɑnošu
genitive	owtura	ertura	ɑktura	owtunora	ertunora	ɑktunora
	jora	nɑra		jonora	nɑnora
dative	joɣɑ	nɑɣɑ	ɑktuɣɑ	jonoɣɑ	nɑnoɣɑ	ɑktunoɣɑ
causative	jokhu	nɑkhu	ɑktukhu	jonokhu	nɑnokhu	ɑktunokhu
instrumental			ɑktukhɑ			ɑktunokhɑ
abessive			ɑktugil			ɑktunogil
locative			ɑktutsar			ɑktunotsar

First and second person forms are meant as referents for 1^st class entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the 1^st or the 2^nd class.

In the pre-classical period another form for the third person, nigtu, is also used. This form is used in an obviative relationship with the form ɑktu, but it has already disappeared in the classical period.

1^st and 2^nd person pronouns have two forms in the ablative and in the genitive case. These forms are distinguished between broad forms (owtušu, ertušu,...) and narrow forms (jošu, nɑšu,...), which have a different use:

• In the ablative case:
  • Broad form: it is used as the ablative form of the pronoun, in the main meanings of the case and with postpositions. It is also used to mark belonging (according to the role of the ablative case), playing the role of an indeclinable possessive adjective or pronoun.

ertunošu papu ʔalolī́ponow
we saw your father

• • Narrow form: it is mostly used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences.

nɑšu hṓthī́niñɑme ʔaʔī́sow
I wasn't looking for you

• In the genitive case:
  • Broad form: it is used to mark strictly possession, playing the role of an indeclinable possessive adjective or pronoun..

ertunora sṓgo ʔalolī́ponow
we saw your house

• • Narrow form: it is mostly used with postpositions.

nɑra ʔḕ kogiwow
I'm going to come with you

Especially in the genitive case these roles are not unchangeably fixed, but they can shift meaning during the entire history of the language: is it indeed not impossibile to find the narrow forms with a possessive role in the later period.

Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:

• that: ɑktuko
• this: niktuko

Demonstrative pronouns exhibit, instead, different forms:

• that one: ɑwo
• this one: niwo

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).

• what: šɑ
• who: šā́

Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.

šā́ɣɑ om pike ʔakowɑker
whom did you give water to?

However, while the animate class pronoun keeps its original meaning when declined, the inanimate class pronouns usually acquire new meanings, depending on the selected case:

• šɑtsar: where (static location)
• šɑɣɑ: where (motion toward)
• šɑšu: where... from (motion form)
• šɑkhu: why (cause)

All forms can, nevertheless, keep their original meaning of “what”:

šɑšu lolī́piñame om ʔaʔī́ser
what didn’t you see?

The various meanings of the declined forms can be usually inferred by the context of the sentence.

There are also other interrogative adjectives and pronouns (and adverbs):

• šā́ko: which (animate)
• šɑko: which (inanimate)
• šɑjuʔṓ: when
• šā́mine: how much (animate)
• šā́mineko: how much / many (animate)
• šɑmine: how much (inanimate)
• šɑmineko: how much / many (inanimate)
• šɑmɑgi: how

Example:

šā́minekono gū́ʔetino totirer
how many horses do you own?

Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:

šā́ɣɑ gū́ om tsɑgewuger
whom are you talking about?

Relative pronoun

There is only one form of relative pronoun:

• hī́

This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the 1^st or the 2^nd class.

Indefinite adjectives and pronouns

There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:

• jḗʔo: every
• mṓwū́: some, any
• hḗsu: no

The form of the adjective mṓwū́ is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mowū́. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.

This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they always agree with their name in singular number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.

jḗʔo wɑki
every village (all the villages)

There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:

• pā́mo: much, many, a lot
• sī́pā́: few, a little, a few

These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the ablative case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.

pā́mo mā́sonošu
many mice, a lot of mice

sī́pā́ pikešu
a little water

The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.

pā́moli wī́ronošu rā́no mṓtsatɑt
a lot of men are collecting milk

The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.

There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:

• jḗšɑ: everything, all, all things (inanimate - 2^nd class)
• jḗšā́: everyone, everybody (animate - 1^st class)
• jḗphū́ka: everyone, each one (animate - 1^st class)
• jḗrā́ʔi: everything, each thing (inanimate - 2^nd class)
• jḗjuʔṓ: every moment, always (invariable)
• jḗjuʔṓɣɑ: per sempre (invariable)
• mṓwū́šɑ: something (inanimate - 2^nd class)
• mṓwū́šā́: someone, somebody (animate - 1^st class)
• mṓwū́phū́ka: someone, somebody (animate - 1^st class)
• mṓwū́rā́ʔi: something (inanimate - 2^nd class)
• mṓwū́pošɑ: something (inanimate - 2^nd class)
• mṓwū́pošā́: someone, somebody (animate - 1^st class)
• mṓwū́juʔṓ: sometimes (invariable)
• mṓwū́pojuʔṓ: sometimes (invariable)
• hḗšɑ: nothing (inanimate - 2^nd class)
• hḗšā́: no one, nobody (animate - 1^st class)
• hḗphū́ka: no one, nobody (animate - 1^st class)
• hḗrā́ʔi: nothing (inanimate - 2^nd class)
• hḗjuʔṓ: in no moment, never (invariable)

These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.

Adverbs

There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ʔū́mtu, inside, or ʔḗhlo, together, mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning.

Generally, adjectives can be used as adverbs by simply putting them before the verb in their undeclined form (which works well also with temporal indefinite adjectives).

Another way to derive an adverbial form from an adjectives is the construction ADJ-tsar mɑgitsar, which means in a ADJ way, AGG-ly. This construction has, however, a strongly marked meaning and usage.

The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:

• 1: šā́ʔo
• 2: ʔaki
• 3: mikṓ
• 4: gṓwe
• 5: pā́ge
• 6: thū́wa
• 7: hašɑ
• 8: kuʔe
• 9: tsṓju
• 10: phḗʔo

Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + phḗʔo + nā́. Examples:

• 11: šā́ʔophḗʔonā́
• 15: pā́gephḗʔonā́

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:

• 100: ñā́tu
• 1000: wiʔā́

The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + re + phḗʔo/ ñā́tu/wiʔā́:

• 30: mikṓrephḗʔo
• 600: thū́wareñā́tu
• 9000: tsṓjurewiʔā́

Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals. Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

• 1985: wiʔā́ tsṓjureñā́tu kuʔerephḗʔo pā́ge

All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms. Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -ko to the cardinal numeral form:

• 1^st: šā́ʔoko
• 15^th: pā́geko

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25^th: ʔakirephḗʔo pā́geko

Postpositions

In the Kī́rtako language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complements can be effectively expressed.

All postposition are always placed after the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.

General list of postpositions

Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus it is said that each postposition governs a specific case.

Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like kī́g).

	case	meaning
ʔḕ	+ genitive	with, together with (marking company)
hā́k	+ ablative	from, native to (marking origin)
jɑl	+ ablative	from, coming from (marking a departure point)
sū̀	+ dative	for, aiming to (marking purpose)
kī́g	+ instrumental	by, with, by means of (marking instrument)
	+ ablative	by way of, using (marking exploiting)
phes	+ ablative	without, in the absence of (marking absence)
kṓw	+ dative	towards, in the direction of (marking direction)
phɑw	+ ablative	in relation to (marking relation)
mɑg	+ passive	in comparison to, like, as (marking comparison)
gū́	+ dative	about, regarding, concerning (marking topic, theme)
pḗr	+ dative	through, throughout, across (marking from a side to the other)
phun	+ locative/genitive	after (temporal value)
roš	+ locative/genitive	before (temporal value)
wū́g	+ ablative	away, away from (marking distancing)
pṓtu	+ dative	against, in opposition to (marking opposition)

Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (locative or passive case), a motion towards a place (dative case) or a motion from a place (ablative case). Such postpositions are called locative postpositions:

	case	meaning
ʔū́m	+ locative/passive/dative/ablative	inside of
sā̀	+ locative/passive/dative/ablative	outside of
wim	+ locative/passive/dative/ablative	under
git	+ locative/passive/dative/ablative	over, on
pig	+ locative/passive/dative/ablative	near
phṓr	+ locative/passive/dative/ablative	in front of, opposite
šom	+ locative/passive/dative/ablative	behind
tī́n	+ locative/passive/dative/ablative	between, among
ʔī́r	+ locative/passive/dative/ablative	around

A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.

ʔḕ

The postposition ʔḕ conveys the meaning of the complement of company. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.

sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went home with my friends

This postposition always governs the genitive case.

It never conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is never used with a 2^nd class noun.

hā́k

The postposition hā́k conveys the meaning of the complement of origin. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.

jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)
I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)

This postposition always governs the ablative case.

It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of motion from a place, in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.

sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow
I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)

In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ablative case alone.

sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow
I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)

jɑl

The postposition jɑl conveys the meaning of the complement of provenience. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.

Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow
I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)

This postposition always governs the ablative case.

It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of motion from a place, in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.

sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow
I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)

In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ablative case alone.

sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow
I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)

sū̀

The postposition sū̀ conveys the meaning of the complement of purpose. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.

hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow
I bought some bread for my friend

Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.

This postposition always governs the dative case.

The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the dative case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.

owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow
I sing for my mother

It never conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.

kī́g

The postposition kī́g conveys more meanings by governing more than one case. It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of mean. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the ablative case.

ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow
I will send it through my friend

It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.

It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of instrument. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the instrumental case.

mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon
the mouse was killed with a stone.

In this meaning it is never used with 1^st class nouns.

The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the instrumental case alone.

mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon
the mouse was killed with a stone.

Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.

phes

The postposition phes conveys the meaning of the complement of absence or exclusion. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.

sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went home without my friends

This postposition always governs the ablative case.

It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.

It never conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.

In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2^nd class nouns, except in a broad sense.

kṓw

The postposition kṓw conveys the meaning of the complement of direction. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.

ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt
his friends are going towards the royal palace

This postposition always governs the dative case.

It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of motion to a place, in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind.

sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went home. (my motion ended in that place)

In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the dative case alone.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went home. (my motion ended in that place)

phɑw

The postposition phɑw conveys the meaning of the complement of relation. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.

ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt
her child can write well compared to that child

It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.

ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)
your friend is older than my father

This postposition always governs the ablative case.

It never conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.

mɑg

The postposition mɑg conveys the meaning of the complement of equivalence. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.

ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt
he works like his friend

This postposition always governs the passive case.

It never conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.

gū́

The postposition gū́ conveys the meaning of the complement of theme. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.

owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt
my friends were talking about their village

This postposition always governs the dative case.

pḗr

The postposition pḗr conveys the meaning of the complement of crossing. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.

ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow
I walked through the fields

This postposition always governs the dative case.

phun

The postposition phun conveys a temporal relation of posteriority. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.

ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow
I came after your friends

The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.

This postposition governs the genitive case, when used with a 1^st class noun, and it governs the locative case, when used with a 2^nd class noun.

roš

The postposition roš conveys a temporal relation of anteriority. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.

ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow
I came before your friends

The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.

This postposition governs the genitive case, when used with a 1^st class noun, and it governs the locative case, when used with a 2^nd class noun.

wū́g

The postposition wū́g conveys the meaning of the complement of distancing or estrangement. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.

ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt
he will send his friend away from his house

This postposition always governs the ablative case.

pṓtu

The postposition pṓtu conveys more meanings. It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of detriment. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.

ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow
I did it against your friends

It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of opposition or objection. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.

šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow
I am going to speak against the king

It may moreover convey the meaning of motion against a place, in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.

mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt
the mouse ran against the door

This postposition always governs the dative case.

Locative postpositions

Locative postpositions convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning. The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:

• Locative or passive case: static location
• Dative case: motion towards a place
• Genitive case: motion from a place

These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2^nd class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the static location. They govern the locative case for 2^nd class nouns and the passive case with 1^st class nouns.

ʔū́m

The postposition ʔū́m conveys the meaning of internal location. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis
my friend was inside the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went inside the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker
you will come from inside the royal palace

It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the locative case alone.

sā̀

The postposition sā̀ conveys the meaning of external location. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis
my friend was outside the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went outside the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker
you will come from outside the royal palace

wim

The postposition wim conveys the meaning of lower location. It specifies a location below another place.

mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ
the mouse was under the black table

mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt
the mouse is running under the black table

mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt
the mouse ran away from under the black table

git

The postposition git conveys the meaning of upper location. It specifies a location above another place.

kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ
the stylus is on the new table

kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow
I put the stylus on the new table

kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger
you will take the stylus from (over) the new table

No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“on the tabe”) or without contact (“over the house, above the house”).

pig

The postposition pig conveys the meaning of close location. It specifies a location near another place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis
my friend was near the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went close to the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker
you will come from nearby the royal palace

phṓr

The postposition phṓr conveys the meaning of frontal location. It specifies a location in front of another place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis
my friend was in front of the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went in front of the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker
you will come from opposite the royal palace

šom

The postposition šom conveys the meaning of back location. It specifies a location behind another place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis
my friend was behind the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went behind the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker
you will come from behind the royal palace

tī́n

The postposition tī́n conveys the meaning of middle location. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis
my friend was between the royal palace and the tower

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went between the royal palace and the tower

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker
you will come from between the royal palace and the tower

No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“between the eyes”) or among more places or entities (“among the candidates”).

It may additionally convey the meaning of an unreal middle position. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ablative case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.

ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)
he is the tallest of my friends

It never conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.

ʔī́r

The postposition ʔī́r conveys the meaning of circular location. It specifies a location around another place.

tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon
the children sat around the old tree

tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt
the children are running around the old tree

tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt
the children came from (around) the old tree

Verbs

The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C

Example:

Rimp = gagok- → Rprf = gogak-

Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.

Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.

Rimp = gagok- → Rimp-past = ʔagagok-

There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional
• Non-finite: infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1st sing.	-ow
2nd sing.	-er
3rd sing.	-ɑt
	-
1st plur.	-onow
2nd plur.	-oner
3rd plur.	-onɑt
	-on

Conjugation of a regular verb

Example: lī́lopɑme, to see

Indicative mood

1st sing.	lī́lopow
2nd sing.	lī́loper
3rd sing.	lī́lopɑt
	lī́lop
1st plur.	lī́loponow
2nd plur.	lī́loponer
3rd plur.	lī́loponɑt
	lī́lopon

Syntax

Main clause and word order

Kī́rtako is an almost strictly SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) language.

wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt 
the man is seeing the dog

The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is OSV (Object-Subject-Verbs), which marks the so-called passive construction.

sopa wī́roli lī́lop
the dog is being seen by the man

The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “place-manner-cause-time”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed before the direct object of the sentence.

A peculiar feature is the verbal infinitival agreement: when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ablative case.

sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow
I am not seeing the dog.

Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.

Nouns

The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.

The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying possession and belonging are always placed before the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.

wī́rora sṓgo
the man’s house

owtušu lilā́
my hand

jṓpā́ ʔṓna 
the young woman

The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called nominal agreement.

Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.

jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt
the young man is going home

jonora sṓgo
our house

jṓpā́no ʔṓnano
the young women

ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)
the women are young

The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.

The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by postpositions, which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow
I am going inside the house