User:Bukkia/sandboxIII

Kī́rtako is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named Kī́rtako languages. Two languages belong to this group and stem from Kī́rtako. It has an alphabetic script.

Phonology

Consonants

The consonant system distinguishes 20 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:

The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: voiceless, voiced, and aspirated, even though the voiced sub-group includes only the phoneme [g].

The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, although less rich, like the group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants. The glottal consonant, [ʔ], while formally a plosive, is traditionally included in the fricative group. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value and they are never regarded as semivowels.

Vowels

There are 6 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:

5 vowels have a short form and a long form. Each long form distinguishes two types: one with a rising tone and one with a falling tone.

The open-back phoneme, [ɑ], makes no distinction, neither in length nor in tone.

Stress

The stress is firmly on the first syllable of the word root.

[ˈkɑ.wo.kow]

Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.

Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.

[ˌpi.ke.ˈmeː˩˧.ʔi]

Tones

The long vowels make a distinction in tone, between a rising [Vː˩˧] tone and a falling [Vː˧˩] tone. Every long vowel has a tonal feature, which is always marked in the script.

pikemḗʔi [ˌpi.ke.ˈmeː˩˧.ʔi]

The vowels with the falling tone are found mostly at the end of words, due to the loss of a previous final consonant. They can be found, quite infrequently, in a medial position inside of a word, mostly in loanwords.

ʔimḗɣɑme - ʔimḕ [ˌʔi.meː˩˧.ɣɑ.me] - [ˌʔi.meː˧˩]

Syllabic structure

The basic syllable structure in Kī́rtako is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:

1. A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:

*[a]
[u.ˈma.tsoː˩˧.ta]

1. A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:

[om]
[ˈer.tu]

1. A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.

[ˈkɑ.wo.kow]
[ˈkiː˩˧r.ta.ko]
[ˈkoː˩˧w]

1. CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.

[ˈko.wɑ.ka.ka]
[ˈnɑ]

Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.

Diphthongs

There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.

Typological structure

Kī́rtako is a morphologically agglutinative language, with an additional but strongly marked introflexive feature, realized in verbal roots.

The basic word order is essentially SOV (Subject-Object-Verb).

phū́kali mū́ke lī́lopɑt
(the) person sees (the) cow

The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the modifier-head (or head-final) type:

• object - verb
• noun - postposition
• adjective - noun
• relative clause - noun

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns in Kī́rtako language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually ends in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ɑ-, in added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.

Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or first class and inanimate nouns or second class. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:

• 1^st class: human beings, animals, deities
• 2^nd class: plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions

A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class.

For example, the word sɑño, light, shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, as the noun ñowe, love, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree.

Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.

There are two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural.

Cases

Kī́rtako nouns do decline, according to an active-stative system with 9 cases:

• Agentive: marks the subject of a transitive verb or the subject of an intransitive verb, which display a certain will or a certain degree of activity in performing the given action. It can be used only with nouns of the 1^st class.
• Passive: marks the object of a transitive verb, the subject of an intransitive verb, which display no intention or will or every inanimate subject.
• Ablative: marks a natural belonging, without any intention of possession. It may mark also the origin point of a motion. It can be used to mark the object of an infinitival form, marking thus also the object of a negated transitive verb.
• Genitive marks a possession, with a clear intention or will. It can be used only with nouns of the 1^st class.
• Dative: marks the indirect object. It may mark also the final point of a motion, the destination of a movement, or the ultimate goal of the action.
• Causative: marks the reason or the cause which caused the action.
• Instrumental: marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform the action. It can be used only with nouns of the 2nd class.
• Abessive: marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing the action. It can be used only with nouns of the 2^nd class.
• Locative: marks the place where the action is performed. It can be used only with nouns of the 2^nd class.

The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:

1. Primary main cases: agentive, genitive
2. Secondary main cases: passive, ablative
3. Primary oblique cases: dative, causative
4. Secondary oblique cases: instrumental, abessive, locative

Other complements are expressed through the postpositions, which select one or more cases to be used with the nouns.

Noun declension

Nouns do decline according to case and number, by adding the following ending to their base form.

	1st class		2nd class
	singular	plural	singular	plural
agentive	-li	-noli
passive	-	-no	-	-no
ablative	-šu	-nošu	-šu	-nošu
genitive	-ra	-nora
dative	-ɣɑ	-noɣɑ	-ɣɑ	-noɣɑ
causative	-khu	-nokhu	-khu	-nokhu
instrumental			-khɑ	-nokhɑ
abessive			-gil	-nogil
locative			-tsar	-notsar

Some examples are shown below: a 1st class noun, papu, father, a 1st class noun, sṓgo, house.

	papu		sṓgo
	singular	plural	singular	plural
agentive	papuli	papunoli
ablative	papu	papuno	sṓgo	sṓgono
passive	papušu	papunošu	sṓgošu	sṓgonošu
genitive	papura	papunora
dative	papuɣɑ	papunoɣɑ	sṓgoɣɑ	sṓgonoɣɑ
causative	papukhu	papunokhu	sṓgokhu	sṓgonokhu
instrumental			sṓgokhɑ	sṓgonokhɑ
abessive			sṓgogil	sṓgonogil
locative			sṓgotsar	sṓgonotsar

The 1st class nouns never add the endings of the secondary oblique cases, while the 2nd class nouns never add the ending of the primary main cases.

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives have the same form and behaviour as nouns, ending mostly in a vowel and showing the same exceptions. Pronouns, instead, may have very different forms, even in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed before the noun, that they are describing, while predicative adjectives are usually placed after their name.

jṓpā́ wī́ro
(the) young man

wī́ro jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)
(the) man is young

Since the verb ʔɑñɑme, to be, can be omitted when is the sentence copula, the only way to distinguish an attributive or a predicative role of an adjective is by its position in relation to its name.

All adjectives agree in case and numbers with the nouns they describe, being declined with the same ending of the noun declension. Differently from nouns, every adjective can always have a complete declension, as it cannot intrinsically belong to one of the classes.

jṓpā́ra wī́rora rḗʔo sṓgo pinkotsar wɑkitsar mḗʔis
the new house of the young man is in the nearby village

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Example: rḗʔo, new

	rḗʔo
	singular	plural
agentive	rḗʔoli	rḗʔonoli
passive	rḗʔo	rḗʔono
ablative	rḗʔošu	rḗʔonošu
genitive	rḗʔora	rḗʔonora
dative	rḗʔoɣɑ	rḗʔonoɣɑ
causative	rḗʔokhu	rḗʔonokhu
instrumental	rḗʔokhɑ	rḗʔonokhɑ
abessive	rḗʔogil	rḗʔonogil
locative	rḗʔotsar	rḗʔonotsar

Comparison of qualifying adjectives

Qualifying adjectives have two comparison forms, comparative and superlative. They build this forms by adding the following endings: Example: rḗʔo, new

comparative	-rṓ
superlative	-rṓtu

These ending are always placed before the case endings and after the adjectival form, both base or derived form. The second comparison term is declined in the ablative case and followed by the postposition phɑw.

wī́ro ʔṓnašu phɑw jṓpā́rṓ (ʔɑñ)
the man is younger than the woman

ʔṓna owtunošu phɑw jṓpā́rṓtu (ʔɑñ)
the woman is the youngest of/among us

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns are distinguished from other pronominal roots by a dichotomy between the forms for the first and second person and the forms for the third person.

The first and second person form have two different roots, creating thus a heteroclitic declension. On these two kinds of root more than one form for every case are created. Differently, the third person has only one root.

	1st person sing.	2nd person sing.	3rd person sing.	1st person plur.	2nd person plur.	3rd person plur.
agentive	owtu	ertu	ɑktuli	owtuno	ertuno	ɑktunoli
passive	jo	nɑ	ɑktu	jono	nɑno	ɑktuno
ablative	owtušu	ertušu	ɑktušu	owtunošu	ertunošu	ɑktunošu
	jošu	nɑnošu		jonošu	nɑnošu
genitive	owtura	ertura	ɑktura	owtunora	ertunora	ɑktunora
	jora	nɑnora		jonora	nɑnora
dative	joɣɑ	nɑɣɑ	ɑktuɣɑ	jonoɣɑ	nɑnoɣɑ	ɑktunoɣɑ
causative	jokhu	nɑkhu	ɑktukhu	jonokhu	nɑnokhu	ɑktunokhu
instrumental			ɑktukhɑ			ɑktunokhɑ
abessive			ɑktugil			ɑktunogil
locative			ɑktutsar			ɑktunotsar

The forms for the first and the second person are meant to be referents of only animate beings, or members of the 1^st class. Therefore they do not have forms for the secondary oblique cases. Instead, the third person has a complete declension, depending on which noun class it refers to.

In the archaich period another third person pronoun is available, nigtu, which falls out of use already before the classic period. It was used as an obviative form in relation to ɑktu.

The pronouns for the first and second person have two forms both for the ablative and for the genitive case. These forms are called, respectively, enlarged form (owtušu, ertušu,...) and reduced form (jošu, nɑšu,...). They are used differently:

• In the ablative case:
  • Enlarged form: actual form for the ablative case, used for the main meanings of this case and with pospositions. It may also convey the meaning of belonging, acting as an indeclinable possessive adjective or pronoun.

ertunošu papu ʔalolī́ponow
we saw your father

• • Restricted form: it is used mostly as direct object of infinitival forms and in the negative sentences.

nɑšu hṓthī́niñɑme ʔaʔī́sow
we weren't looking for you

• In the genitive case:
  • Enlarged form: it strictly conveys the meaning of possession, acting as an indeclinable possessive adjective or pronoun.

ertunora sṓgo ʔalolī́ponow
we saw your house

• • Restricted form: it is used mostly with postpositions.

nɑra ʔḕ kogiwow
I'm going to come with you

In the genitive case these roles are not unchangingly fixed, but during the history of the language their roles change, especially in the late period.

Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

The demonstrative adjectives are:

• that: ɑktuko
• this: niktuko

The demonstrative pronouns have different forms:

• that one: ɑwo
• this one: niwo