Fudasi: Syntax

Table of Phonemes

MOA	nasals				stops							sibilants				fricatives			tap		affricates				approximants			vowels
IPA	/m/	/n/	/ŋ/		/p/	/b/	/t/	/d/	/k/	/g/		/s/ (/θ/)	/z/ (/ð/)	/ʃ/		/ɸ/	/h/		/ɾ/ (/ʁ/)		/ʦ/	/ʧ/	/ʤ/		/j/	/w/		/i/	/e/	/ä/	/o/	/u/ (/ɯ/)
Latin	m	n	ŋ		p	b	t	d	k	g		s	z	x		f	h		r		ṡ	ċ	j		y	w		i	e	a	o	u

Note:

• Phonemes in parentheses indicate the pronunciation of the southern Nemuti.

Grammar

Word Order - Ċoċu mu Tupu

• 001. Nemuti word order is SVO, subject-verb-object.
• 002. The accent is normally on the penultimate syllable. A written acute accent indicates a different accent.
• 003. The indirect object precedes the direct object.
• 004. The possessive noun follows the head noun.
• 005. Determiners precede the nouns they qualify. Adjectives follow the nouns they qualify.
• 006. The adjective precedes the standard of comparison.
• 007. The adjective follows the dependent verb.
• 008. Adverbs follow the verbs they modify.
• 009. The order of adverbials is time, space, manner.

Verbs - Ċeti Tup̨u

• 010. Verbs are a class of words that convey an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand).
• 011. Tense is a grammatical category which expresses the time at which a state or action described by a verb occurs. Tense is indicated by modifying the word's initial phoneme.
• 012. The present tense is the base form of the verb without modification: nefo, see.

Idi ya nefo te ton̨u yo, I see the clouds.

• 013. The past tense is formed by labializing the first consonant: nefo, see.

Idi ya ňefo te ton̨u yo, I see the clouds.

• 014. The future tense is formed by palatalizing the first phoneme: nefo, see.

Idi ya n̨efo te ton̨u yo, I see the clouds.

• 015. A verbal noun is formed by suffixing the definite article, te, to the appropriate tense form. This verbal noun functions as an infinitive or gerund.

Te nefo se te ṡeso, Seeing is believing.

• 016. Mood is a grammatical category by which the speaker expresses his attitude toward what he is saying.
• 017. The subjunctive mood is formed with the suffix -ne:

Imu ya ŋisane idi yo, She may love me.

• 018. The imperative mood is formed with the suffix -te.

Ŋísate idi yo, Love me.

• 019. The hortative and jussive moods are formed with the verb wofo, let, permit.

Wófote ifa yo te ŋopi, Let him sing.

• 020. The conditional mood is formed with the particle fi:

F' idi ya ŋisa ipi yo, If I love you....

F' idi ya ŋ̌isa ipi yo, If I loved you....

• 021. The recent past is formed with the suffix -pa:

Idi ya néfopa yime yo, I just saw a crocodile.

• 022. The passive form of the verb is formed with the suffix -fa; the subject takes the particle yo:

Te kiki yo ŋísafa, The mother is loved.

Te feŋu yo x̌ótofa, The apple was cooked.

• 023. Sentence negation uses -so.

Te ṡuma púyoso, The boy does not dance.

Te ṡuma ŋ̒ísaso, The boy will not love.

• • This particle follows any others:

Te ṡuċu puyoneso mi, The girl may not want to dance.

• 024. A question is indicated by the use of the interrogative particle me at the end of the sentence:

Idi ya ŋisa ipi yo, I love you.

Idi ya ŋisa ipi yo me, Do I love you?

• 025. Dependent verbs, such as infinitives and gerunds, follow the verb or adjective upon which they are dependent:

Idi ya ŋ̌uzu t' eto, I was afraid to go.

• • A direct object is placed before the infinitive:

Idi ya ŋ̌uzu dini yo te ziyi, I was afraid to touch a toad.

• 026. Transitive verbs may be formed from adjectives and nouns with the suffix -ri: rehu, wide.

Ih̨a ya réhuri te neje yo, They are widening the road.

Idi ya ňáċeri ifa yo t' eto, I ordered him to go.

• 027. The copulative verb to be is se.

Ifa ya se te wako ya, He is the chief.

Ifa ya še te pepe ya, He was the father.

• 028. The existential copula is he, there is/are.

Butofe he a te tetu, There is an eagle in the tree.

• 029. To be about to is translated with the particle tufu:

Imu ya žita tufu, She was about to scream.

• 030. Must, have to is translated with the particle miwa:

Idi ya zeri miwa tum̨u pim̨a yo, I have to plant these seeds.

Nouns - Miniŋa Tup̨u

• 031. Nouns are a class of words that function as the names of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.
• 032. There are no noun classes in Nemuti.
• 033. Plurality is formed by palatalizing the last consonant:

xote, moon; xot̨e, moons.

• • If the plurality is evident, then the singular form is used: ho xote, two rivers.
• 034. Possession is indicated by the possessive particle mu, of.

Te feŋu mu te tunu, the child's apple.

Te iṡe mu te bime, the man's foot.

• 035. Abstract nouns are derived from adjectives with the suffix -ŋe:

neċe, short; neċeŋe, shortness.

• 036. Abstract nouns are derived from verbs with the suffix -ŋe:

ṡemo, die; ṡemoŋe, death.

• 037. Nouns naming a person characterized by an adjective are formed with the suffix -ṡi:

yiti, young; yitiṡi, youth; yit̨iṡi, youths.

hofo, old; hofoṡi, elder; hof̨oṡi, elders.

• 038. The agent of a verb is formed with the suffix -ṡi.

ŋopi, sing; ŋopiṡi , singer; ŋop͑iṡi , singers.

• 039. The instrument for performing the action of a verb is formed with the suffix -te.

te, cut; tete, knife; t̨ete, knives.

• 040. Nouns denoting perceptible things are formed with the suffix -ŋa.

yifi, laugh; yifiŋa, laugh, laughter.

• 041. A noun may be specified as masculine or feminine by using the prefixes wo- and ċu-, respectively: puhe, bird; wopuhe, cock; ċupuhe, hen.
• 042. Collective nouns are formed from nouns or adjectives by using the word tone, group.

te tone puh̨e, the flock of birds; te tone zim̨i, the school of fish; te tone ṡen̨i, archipelago.

• 043. Diminutives of nouns are formed with the prefix ta-.

te pisa, the wind; te tapisa, the breeze; te tapis̨a, the breezes.

• 044. Nouns naming the member of a group are formed with the suffix -ċe.

zipu, village; zipuċe, villager.

• 045. Nouns may be used to modify other nouns.

te wini udiwi, the mountain stream; te wini udiw̨i, the mountain streams.

• 046. The subject of the verb and the predicate nominative, noun or pronoun, takes the particle ya:

Te puh̨e ya zoyi ye te tet̨u, The birds are perching in the trees.

• 047. The object of the verb, noun or pronoun, takes the particle yo:

Idi ya bate te nefo uf̨a yo, I can see them.

Modifiers - Piŋeŋe Tup̨u

• 048. In Nemuti grammar adjectives, adverbs and determiners are classed together as modifiers.

Adjectives - Guṡiŋe Tup̨u

• 049. Adjectives are a class of words which qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.
• 050. Adjectives are placed before the noun: te wuṡe ṡuma, the good boy.
• 051. The one degree of comparison, known as the comparative (COMP), is formed with adverb bo, more.

yiti, young; bo yiti, younger, youngest.

• 052. Negative comparison is formed with the word mebo, less: rifoti, distant; mebo rifoti, less/least distant.
• 053. The comparison of equality is formed with the conjunctions umi...tofi, as...as; ŋiti, red:

Tumu kimi se umi ŋiti tofi jeṡu, This flower is as red as blood.

• 054. Participles are a form of a verb that is used to modify a noun, noun phrase, verb, or verb phrase, playing a role similar to an adjective or adverb.
• 055. There are two participles in Nemuti.
  • a. The present participle is created by using the nonpast form of the verb + mu:

te ŋuwo mu zimi, the swimming fish.

• • b. The past participle is created by using the past form of the verb + mu:

te ṡ̬eso mu homa, the sunken boat.

• 056. Word negation is indicated by the use of the prefix m(e)-.

pefi, even; mepefi, uneven.

• 057. The suffix -se combines with a noun to form an adjective denoting similarity, likeness or resemblance to what is named in the noun root, -ish, -like.

puhe, bird; puhese, like a bird.

• 058. Adjectives with the meaning without are expressed with the prefix -miṡe, -less.

tegu, hope; tegumiṡe, hopeless.

• 059. Adjectives may be used as stative verbs by adding the suffix -ze:

te gute tunu, the sick child; te tunu ǧuteze, the child was sick.

Determiners - Tapaŋe Tup̨u

• 060. Determiners are a class of words that serve to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. They may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, etc. They are placed before the noun.
• 061. The definite article is te.
• 062. There is no indefinite article.
• 063. The proximal demonstrative, this/these, is tumu.

tumu riki, this leaf; tumu rik̨i, these leaves.

• 064. The distal demonstrative, that/those, is zumu.

zumu tonu, that cloud; zumu ton̨u, those clouds.

• 065. Numerals precede the noun in the absence of a determiner.

Ne puz̨e xoto, Three women are cooking.

• • They follow the noun if the noun is preceded by a determiner.

Tumu puz̨e ne xoto, These three women are cooking.

• 066. The elective indefinite determiner is eye, any.
• 067. The exisential determiner is eṡa, some.
• 068. The negative determiner is mi, no.
• 069. The distributive determiner is wofo, every.

Numerals - Zoċe

• 070. Nemuti has an octal numeral system.

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
re	ho	ne	wu	xo	no	mi	wi

• 071. The numerals 9-15 are formed by suffixing the proper cardinal to wi, eight.

9	10	11	12	13	14	15
wire	wiho	wine	wiwu	wixo	wino	wimi

• 072. The numerals 16-64 are formed by prefixing the proper cardinal to wi, eight.

16	24	32	40	48	56	64
howi	newi	wuwi	xowi	nawi	miwi	wiwi

• 073. The ordinals are made with the prefix be-.

te beho xomi, the second rope

• 074. The adverbial numbers are made with the suffix -te.

hote, twice; wite, eight times.

Adverbs - Pume Tup̨u

• 075. Adverbs are a class of words that modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a determiner, a noun phrase, a clause, or a sentence. They typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc.
• 076. Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the suffix -to.

te wota bima, the brave man; Ifa t̬upuri wótato, He acted bravely.

• 077. The comparative of these adverbs is formed in the same way as are adjectives; wótato, bravely; bo wótato, more bravely.

Pronouns - Tihiŋe Tup̨u

• 078. Pronouns are a class of words that substitute for a noun or noun phrase. There are seven types of pronouns in Nemuti.
• 079. The personal pronouns are idi, I; id̨i, we; ipi, you (sg.); ip̨i, you (pl.); ifa, he; if̨a, they; imu, she; im̨u, they; ufa, it; uf̨a, they.

Idi ya ŋisa imu yo, I love her.

Imu ya ŋisa idi yo, She loves me.

Idi ya ŋ̌ipa me imu te kimi yo, I gave her the flower.

• • If the group consists of both male and female beings, the male pronoun is used.
• 080. The interrogative pronouns are biha, who; bime, what; and haba, which.
• 081. The reflexive pronouns are translated by using the noun ċedi, self.

Idi ya p̌ina ċedi yo, I hurt myself.

• 082. The intensive pronouns are formed with the suffix -jedi, self.

Idijedi n̨iye, I myself will go.

• 083. The demonstrative pronouns are the demonstrative determiners with the appropriate particles.

This is a flower, Tumu ya se kimi ya.

Those are leaves, Zum̨u ya se rik̨i ya.

• 084. The indefinite pronouns are made from the indefinite determiners.

eyemema, anyone, anybody; eyenumu, anything.

eṡamema, someone, somebody; eṡanumu, something.

mimema, no one, nobody; minumu, nothing.

• 085. There are no possessive pronouns. The possessor is expressed with a prepositional phrase using m(u). When this phrase is used, the subject particle ya is omitted.

Tumu ya se kimi m' ipi, zumu ya se m' idi. This is your flower, that is mine.

Prepositions - Tup̨u mu Niki

• 086. Nemuti uses prepositions, a class of words that express spatial or temporal relations (in, under, towards, before) or mark various semantic roles (of, for).

a te rini, at the beach.

Te juto ya se ye te xota, The cup is on the table.

Conjunctions - Tup̨u mu Taxuŋe

• 087. A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases or clauses.
• 088. In Nemuti there are three types of conjunctions.
• 089. A coordinate conjunction joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance.

Te tobe mu idi pu idi ya ċuri wiṡ̨e pu tiṡ̨u yo, My brother and I like coconuts and bananas.

• 090. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join two or more items of equal syntactic importance.

Idi n̨iye ju ti te rini ti te win̨i, I will go either to the beach or to the mountains.

• 091. Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause and a dependent clause.

Ċen' imu guteze, p̌iga ṡepi toċe, Although she is sick, she ate her breakfast.

Octal Table

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
re	ho	ne	wu	xo	no	mi	wi
9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16
wire	wiho	wine	wiwu	wixo	wino	wimi	howi
17	18	19	20	21	22	23	24
howire	howiho	howine	howiwu	howixo	howino	howimi	newi
25	26	27	28	29	30	31	32
newire	newiho	newine	newiwu	newixo	newino	newimi	wuwi
33	34	35	36	37	38	39	40
wuwire	wuwiho	wuwine	wuwiwu	wuwixo	wuwino	wuwimi	xowi
41	42	43	44	45	46	47	48
xowire	xowiho	xowine	xowiwu	xowixo	xowino	xowimi	nowi
49	50	51	52	53	54	55	56
nowire	nowiho	nowine	nowiwu	nowixo	nowino	nowimi	miwi
57	58	59	60	61	62	63	64
miwire	miwiho	miwine	miwiwu	miwixo	miwino	miwimi	wiwi