Liwadi: Syntax: Difference between revisions

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*070. Liwadi has an octal numeral system.
*070. Liwadi has an octal numeral system.


=====Octal Table=====
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
! <center>1</center>
! <center>1</center>
Line 412: Line 413:
|-
|-
| '''hed'''
| '''hed'''
| '''waʻ'''
| '''wan'''
| '''kub'''
| '''kub'''
| '''toń'''
| '''toń'''
| '''pem'''
| '''pem'''
| '''ser'''
| '''ser'''
| '''yin'''
| '''yim'''
| '''nul'''
| '''nam'''
|}
*071. The numerals 9-15 are formed by suffixing the proper cardirnal to '''yeʻ''', eight.
 
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
!<center>9</center>
! 10
! 11
! 12
! 13
! 14
! 15
|-
| '''yeʻpab
| '''yeʻkeg
| '''yeʻtid
| '''yeʻsoz
| '''yeʻlum
| '''yeʻniń
| '''yeʻhar
|}
 
*072. The numerals 16-64 are formed by prefixing the proper cardirnal to '''miz''', eight.
 
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
!<center>16</center>
! 24
! 32
! 40
! 48
! 56
! 64
|-
| '''keġyeʻ'''
| '''tiḍyeʻ'''
| '''sozyeʻ'''
| '''lumyeʻ'''
| '''nińyeʻ'''
| '''haryeʻ'''
| '''yeʻyeʻ'''
|}
 
*073. Compounds of 64 can be made by prefixing the proper ordinal to '''yeʻyeʻ''': '''kegyeʻyeʻ''', 128, but the Liwadis seldom need to count that high.
*074. The ordinals are made by adding the suffix '''-it''' to the cardinal number: '''pabit''', first.
*075. The adverbial numbers expressing ''how many times'' are made by adding the suffix '''-us''' to the ordinal number: '''pabus''', twice; '''mizus''', eight times.
*076. Multiplicative numbers expressing ''how many times as many'' are formed by adding '''-ar''' to the cardinal number: '''yeʻar''', eight times as many.
:::'''Em tidar lomder-na dawańa yol es dawańu.'''
:::I have three times as many bananas as he has.
::::{|
!Em||tid-ar||lomder-na||dawań-a||yol||es||dawań-u
|-
|I||three-MULT||banana\PL-OBJ||have\NPST\IND-1||as||he||have\NPST\IND-3
|}
*077. Distributive numbers (DSTR) expressing ''at a time'' are formed by duplicating the first syllable of the required number.
:::'''Su inir kekeg sa benep-na serapu.'''
:::The men crossed the bridge two at a time.
::::{|
!Su||in-ir||ke~keg||sa||benep-na||serap-u
|-
|the||man-PL||DSTR~two||the||bridge-OBJ||cross-PST\IND-3
|}
*078. Distributive numbers expressing ''each'' are formed by adding the determiner '''yok''', each, to the cardinal number.
:::'''Emer ige tiḍyok ruzlar-na dekaka.'''
:::We split into groups of three each.
::::{|
!Emer||ige||tiḍ.yok||ruzl-ar-na||dekak-a
|-
|we||into||three.each||group-PL-OBJ||split\PST\IND-3
|}
 
====Adverbs - '''Nuker Liḳdar''' نۆکهر ليخظار====
*079. [[Wikipedia:Adverb|Adverbs]] are a class of words that modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a determiner, a noun phrase, a clause, or a sentence. They typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, ''etc.''
*080. They have the same form as the adjective, but follow the verb they modify:
:::'''su iliz in''', the brave man.
:::'''Es medab iliz''', He acted bravely.
*081. The comparative of these adverbs is formed in the same way as are adjectives; '''iliz''', bravely; '''iliziliz''', more/most bravely.
 
===Pronouns - '''Nuhon Liḳdar''' نۆحۄن ليخظار===
*082. [[Wikipedia:Pronoun|Pronouns]] are a class of words that substitute for a noun or noun phrase. There are seven types of pronouns in Liwadi.
*083. The personal pronouns are '''em''', I; '''emer''', we; '''eń''', you (''sg.''); '''eńer''', you (''pl.''); '''(in)es''', he; '''(min)es''', she; '''et''', it; '''eser/eter''', they.
*084. The interrogative pronoun is '''la''' which stands for the interrogative pronouns ''who'', ''what'' and the interrogative adjective ''which''.
*085. The reflexive pronouns are translated by using the personal pronoun as both subject and object:
:::'''Em em-na yesara.'''
:::I hurt myself.
::::{|
!Em||em-na||yesar-a
|-
|I||I-OBJ||hurt\PST\IND-1
|}
*086. The intensive pronouns are formed with the noun '''sizul''', self:
:::'''Emsizul dakaya.'''
:::I myself will go.
::::{|
!Em.sizul||dakay-a
|-
|I.self||go\NPST\IND-1
|}
:::'''Su minsizul elo sa yamuń dakaya.'''
:::The woman herself will go to the store.
::::{|
!Su||min.sizul||elo||sa||yamuń||dakay-a
|-
|the||woman.self||to||the||store||go\NPST\IND-3
|}
*087. The demonstrative pronouns are the same as the demonstrative determiners, '''wed''', this; '''weder''', these; and '''dad''', that; '''dadar''', those, and may take the direct object particle as needed:
:::'''Em dadar-na pazada.'''
:::I waʻt those.
::::{|
!Em||dad-ar-na||pazad-a
|-
|I||this-PL-OBJ||waʻt\NPST\IND-1
|}
*088. The indefinite pronouns are made from the indefinite determiners: '''nul nuhon''', anyone, anybody, '''nul gurop''', anything; '''rag nuhon''', someone, somebody; '''rag gurop''', something; '''wa nuhon''', no one, nobody; '''wa gurop''', nothing; '''yok nuhon''', everyone, everybody; '''yok gurop''', everything.
*089. There are no possessive pronouns. The possessor is expressed with a prepositional phrase using ''ne'', of; the vowel of the pronoun is [[Wikipedia:Elision|elided]]:
:::'''Wed sa 'ń ʻipay ayadu, dad ne 'm ayadu.'''
:::This is your flower, that is mine.
::::{|
!Wed||sa||'ń||ʻipay||ayad-u||dad||ne||'m||ayad-u
|-
|this||the||you||flower||be\NPST\IND\-3||that||of||I||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
*090. There are no relative pronouns. The relative clause is an independent clause that precedes the noun it modifies. Any determiner precedes the relative clause. The relative clause is in italics.
:::'''Sa ''es ya rinap-na renaku'' ńisil ayadu.'''
:::The meat which she cooked is delicious.
::::{|
!Sa||es||ya||rinap-na||renak-u||ńisil||ayad-u
|-
|the||she||INDEF||meat-OB||PST\cook\IND-3||delicious||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
 
:::'''Em su ''es em-na ʻebasu'' in-na dapaga.'''
:::I will kill the man who wounded me.
::::{|
!em||su||es||em-na||ʻebas-u||in-OBJ||dapag-a
|-
|I||the||he||I-OBJ||wound\PST\IND-3||man-OB||kill\NPST\IND-1
|}
 
:::'''Sa ''mines et-na renaku'' enip idol ayadu.'''
:::The pot in which she cooked it is red.
::::{|
!Sa||min-es||et-na||renak-u||enip||idol||ayad-u
|-
|the||F-3||3-OBJ||cook\PST\IND-3||pot||red||be\NPST\IND-3
|}
 
:::'''Em tid ''eter yo sa tal nadayu'' tiḳgar-na asada.'''
:::I see three children who are playing in the sea.
::::{|
!Em||tid||et-er||yo||sa||tal||naday-u||tiḳg-ar-na||asad-a
|-
|I||three||3-PL||in||the||sea||play\NPST\IND-3||child-PL-OBJ||see\NPST\IND-1
|}
 
===Prepositions - '''Tiyon Liḳdar''' طيىۄن ليخظار===
*091. Liwadi uses [[Wikipedia:Preposition and postposition|prepositions]], a class of words that express spatial or temporal relations (in, under, towards, before) or mark various semantic roles (of, for): '''zu sa nipap''', at the beach.
*The prepositions are listed in a separate dictionary where a fuller description of them can be given [Liwadi: List of Prepositions].
 
===Conjunctions - '''Yirup Liḳdar''' ىيرۆٮ ليخظار===
*092. A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases or clauses.
*093. In Liwadi there are three types of conjunctions.
*094. A coordinate conjunction joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance:
:::'''Su em insad h' em ʻiṗtar-na he tuṗyar-na dararu.'''
:::My brother and I like fruits and vegetables.
::::{|
!su||em||insad||he||em||ʻiṗt-ar-na||he||tuṗy-ar-na||darar-u
|-
|the||my||brother||and||I||fruit-PL-OBJ||and||vegetable-PL-OBJ||like\NPST\IND-3
|}
*095. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join two or more items of equal syntactic importance:
:::'''Eń u sepur padadi u eń latadi.'''
:::You will either eat your supper or go to bed.
::::{|
!Eń||u||sepur||padad-i||u||eń||latad-i
|-
|you||or||supper||eat\NPST\IND-2||or||you||go.to.bed\NPST\IND-2
|}
*096. Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause and a dependent clause:
:::'''Apoń es doked ayadu, es rotep pedadu.'''
:::Although she is sick, she ate her breakfast.
::::{|
!Apoń||es||doked||ayad-u||es||rotep||pedad-u
|-
|although||she||sick||be\NPST\IND-3||she||morning||eat.a.meal\PST\IND-3
|}
 
 
==Octal Table==
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:left; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
! <center>1 ح</center>
! 2 و
! 3 ک
! 4 ط
! 5 ٮ
! 6 ص
! 7 ی
! 8 ن
|-
| '''hed'''<br>حهظ
| '''wan'''<br>وان
| '''kub'''<br>کۆب
| '''toń'''<br>طۄگ
| '''pem'''<br>ٮهم
| '''ser'''<br>صهر
| '''yim'''<br>ىيم
| '''nam'''<br>نام
|-
|-
! <center>9</center>
! <center>9</center>
Line 635: Line 430:
! 16
! 16
|-
|-
| '''namhed'''<br>
| '''namhed'''
| '''namwan'''<br>
| '''namwan'''
| '''namkub'''<br>
| '''namkub'''
| '''namtoń'''<br>
| '''namtoń'''
| '''nampem'''<br>
| '''nampem'''
| '''namser'''<br>
| '''namser'''
| '''namyim'''<br>
| '''namyim'''
| '''wannam'''<br>
| '''wannam'''
|-
|-
! <center>17</center>
! <center>17</center>
Line 653: Line 448:
! 24
! 24
|-
|-
| '''wannamhed'''<br>
| '''wannamhed'''
| '''wannamwan'''<br>
| '''wannamwan'''
| '''wannamkub'''<br>
| '''wannamkub'''
| '''wannamtoń'''<br>
| '''wannamtoń'''
| '''wannampem'''<br>
| '''wannampem'''
| '''wannamser'''<br>
| '''wannamser'''
| '''wannamyim'''<br>
| '''wannamyim'''
| '''kubnam'''<br>
| '''kubnam'''
|-
|-
! <center>25</center>
! <center>25</center>
Line 671: Line 466:
! 32
! 32
|-
|-
| '''kubnamhed'''<br>
| '''kubnamhed'''
| '''kubnamwan'''<br>
| '''kubnamwan'''
| '''kubnamkub'''<br>
| '''kubnamkub'''
| '''kubnamtoń'''<br>
| '''kubnamtoń'''
| '''kubnampem'''<br>
| '''kubnampem'''
| '''kubnamser'''<br>
| '''kubnamser'''
| '''kubnamyim'''<br>
| '''kubnamyim'''
| '''tońnam'''<br>
| '''tońnam'''
|-
|-
!<center>33</center>
! <center>33</center>
! 34
! 34
! 35
! 35
Line 689: Line 484:
! 40
! 40
|-
|-
| '''tońnamhed'''<br>
| '''tońnamhed'''
| '''tońnamwan'''<br>
| '''tońnamwan'''
| '''tońnamkub'''<br>
| '''tońnamkub'''
| '''tońnamtoń'''<br>
| '''tońnamtoń'''
| '''tońnampem'''<br>
| '''tońnampem'''
| '''tońnamser'''<br>
| '''tońnamser'''
| '''tońnamyim'''<br>
| '''tońnamyim'''
| '''pemnam'''<br>
| '''pemnam'''
|-
|-
!<center>41</center>
! <center>41</center>
! 42
! 42
! 43
! 43
Line 706: Line 501:
! 47
! 47
! 48
! 48
|-  
|-
| '''pemnamhed'''<br>
| '''pemnamhed'''
| '''pemnamwan'''<br>
| '''pemnamwan'''
| '''pemnamkub'''<br>
| '''pemnamkub'''
| '''pemnamtoń'''<br>
| '''pemnamtoń'''
| '''pemnampem'''<br>
| '''pemnampem'''
| '''pemnamser'''<br>
| '''pemnamser'''
| '''pemnamyim'''<br>
| '''pemnamyim'''
| '''sernam'''<br>
| '''sernam'''
|-
|-
! <center>49</center>
! <center>49</center>
Line 725: Line 520:
! 56
! 56
|-
|-
| '''sernamhed'''<br>
| '''sernamhed'''
| '''sernamwan'''<br>
| '''sernamwan'''
| '''sernamkub'''<br>
| '''sernamkub'''
| '''sernamtoń'''<br>
| '''sernamtoń'''
| '''sernampem'''<br>
| '''sernampem'''
| '''sernamser'''<br>
| '''sernamser'''
| '''sernamyim'''<br>
| '''sernamyim'''
| '''yimnam'''<br>
| '''yimnam'''
|-
|-
! <center>57</center>
! <center>57</center>
Line 743: Line 538:
! 64
! 64
|-
|-
| '''yimnamhed'''<br>
| '''yimnamhed'''
| '''yimnamwan'''<br>
| '''yimnamwan'''
| '''yimnamkub'''<br>
| '''yimnamkub'''
| '''yimnamtoń'''<br>
| '''yimnamtoń'''
| '''yimnampem'''<br>
| '''yimnampem'''
| '''yimnamser'''<br>
| '''yimnamser'''
| '''yimnamyim'''<br>
| '''yimnamyim'''
| '''namnam'''<br>
| '''namnam'''
|}
|}


[[Liwadi: Dictionaries]]
[[Liwadi: Dictionaries]]

Revision as of 12:06, 30 August 2021

THE GRAMMAR OF LIWADI,
صا کهنۄم ىاخکۄر نه صۆ کهنۄم نه صۆ ليواظ
sa Kenom Yaxkor ne sa Kenom ne su Liwad

Table of Phonemes

IPA /h/ /χ/ /ɣ/ /w/ /o/ /u/ /k/ /g/ /ŋ/ /t/ /d/ /θ/ /ð/ /p/ /b/ /ɸ/ /β/ /s/ /z/ /j/ /i/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ä/ /n/ /m/ /l/ /ɾ/ /ʔ/
Latin H h ḳ ġ W w O o U u K k G g Ń ń T t D d ṭ ḍ P p B b ṗ ḃ S s Z z Y y I i E e ė A a N n M m L l R r ʻ
Arabic ح خ ݗ و ۄ ۆ ک ݢ گ ط ظ د ذ ٮ ﺏ ڡ ڢ ص ض ی ي ه ا ن م ل ر ع
Name Ha
حا 		Ḳa
خا 		Ġa
ݗا 		Wa
وا 		Wo
وۄ 		Wu
وۆ 		Kaf
کا 		Gaf
ݢا 		Ńaf
گا 		Ta
طا 		Da
ظا 		Ṭa
دا 		Ḍa
ذا 		Pa
ٮا 		Ba
با 		Ṗa
ڡا 		Ḃa
ڢا 		Sa
صا 		Za
ضا 		Ya
ىا 		Yi
ىي 		Ye
ىه 		Yė
ىٰ 		Alif
ا 		Nun
نۆن 		Mim
ميم 		Lam
لام 		Ra
را 		ʻan
عان
  • The letters in red are those used as the numerals in the octal system, e.g., وع, wannam, 16.


Grammar - Kenom Yaxkor کهنۄم ىاخکۄر

Syllables, Accent and Punctuation

  • 001. All basic words (lemmas) end in a consonant with the exception of the prepositions (VCV, CV or VV), the articles (CV), and (he), and or (u).
  • 002. The accent of disyllabic words falls on the ultimate syllable.
  • 003. The accent remains on this ultima when prefixes or suffixes are added.
  • 004. There are no diphthongs.

Word Order - Likad Nigup ليکاظ نيݢۆٮ

  • 005. Liwadi word order is SOV, subject-object-verb.
  • 006. The indirect object precedes the direct object:
Em ae su in sa ruzad-na meńama.
I gave the egg to the man.
Em ae su in sa ruzad-na meńam-a
I to the man the egg-OBJ give\PST\IND-3p
  • 007. The genitive noun follows the head noun:
Sa bapom ne tu in yasaru.
The man's throat hurts.
Sa bapom ne tu in yasar-u
the throat of the man hurt\NPST\IND-3p
  • 008. Adjectives and determiners precede the nouns they qualify.
  • 009. The adjective follows the standard of comparison.
  • 010. The adjective precedes the dependent verb.
  • 011. Adverbs follow the verbs they modify.
  • 012. Adverbials of time precede those of space.

Verbs - Yipod Liḳdar ىيٮۄظ ليخظار

  • 013. Verbs are a class of words that convey an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand).
  • 014. Most Liwadi verbs consist of what is called a triliteral stem, three consonants, CVCVC. Prefixes, suffixes and infixes specify the meaning of the verb. A few verbs have the form VCVC.
  • 015. Tense is a grammatical category which expresses the time at which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs. There are two tenses in Liwadi, non-past (NPST) and past (PST).
  • 016. The non-past tense is indicated by a in the first vowel position: maʻak, fall. This form is the lemma.
  • 017. The past tense is indicated be e in the first vowel position: meʻak, fell.
  • 018. Mood is a grammatical category by which the speaker expresses his attitude toward what he is saying.
  • 019. The vowel in the second vowel position indicates the mood.
  • 020. The indicative mood (IND) is indicated by a in the second vowel position: maʻak, fall.
  • 021. The subjunctive mood (SBJ) is indicated by e in the second vowel position: maʻek, may fall.
  • 022. The imperative mood (IMP) is indicated by i in the second vowel position: maʻik, fall!
  • 023. This same form is used for the cohortative (COH) and jussive (JUS) moods with the appropriate pronoun following in the objective form:
anip es-na, Let him sing.
anip emer-na, Let's sing.
  • 024. The Liwadi verb is marked for person, but not for number. The accent remains on the second syllable, the penultimate: nadada, I/we swim; nadadi, you (sg./pl) swim; nadadu, he/they swim.
  • 025. The passive (PAS) form of the verb is formed by prefixing the verb with gė- and adding the object suffix to the subject:
Sa gab-na gėrenaku.
The fish was cooked.
sa gab-na gė-renak-u
the fish-OBJ PAS-cook\PST\IND-3
Sa ikam-na gėnapaʻu.
The tree is burned.
Sa ikam-na gė-napaʻ-u
the tree-OBJ PAS-burn\NPST\IND-3
If there is no initial consonant, then only g is prefixed:
Su am-na gadaru.
The mother is loved.
Su am-na g-adar-u
the mother-OBJ PAS-love\NPST\IND-3
  • 026. The non-past infinitive is formed by prefixing mė- to the non-past indicative form: mėpasad, to see; mėyaʻaʻ, to bend.
The past infinitive is formed by prefixing mė to the past indicative form:
mėpesad, to have seen; mėyeʻaʻ, to have bent.
The passive infinitive is formed by prefixing both mė- and gė-.
mėgėpesad, to have been seen; mėgėyeʻaʻ, to have been bent.
  • 027. A verbal noun, or gerund (GER), is indicated by o in the second vowel position: pazad, want; pazod, wanting.
Ya nadod ya em ńeṗʻor-na yawayu.
Swimming strengthens my limbs.
Ya nadod ya em ńeṗʻor-na yaway-u
INDEF swim\GER INDEF my limb-OBJ strengthen\NPST\IND-3
  • 028. Sentence negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the word wa:
Em adara wa, I do not love.
  • 029. A question (Q) is indicated by the use of the final particle ha:
Em eń-na adara, I love you.
Em eń-na adara ha?, Do I love you?
If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made followed by the phrase mubam ha, true?
Su nulen wapayu, mubam ha?
The sun is shining, isn't it?
Su nulen wepayu, mubam ha?
The sun was shining, wasn't it?
If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made followed by the phrase mubam ha, true?
Su nulen wapadu wa, mubam ha?
The sun isn't shining, is it?
Su nulen wepadu wa, mubam ha?
The sun wasn't shining, was it?
  • 030. Dependent verbs, such as infinitives and gerunds, precede the verb or adjective upon which they are dependent:
Em ya yuʻag-na mėmabas ʻedaga.
I was afraid to touch a toad.
Em ya yuʻag-na mė-mabas ʻedag-a
I INDEF toad-OBJ INF-touch fear\PST\IND-3
Es mėmanas pazadu.
He wants to go.
Es mė-manas pazad-u
he INF-go want\NPST\IND-3
A direct object is placed before the infinitive:
Em es-na mėmanas pezadu.
I wanted him to go.
Em es-na mė-manas pezad-u
I he-OBJ INF-god want\PST\IND-3
  • 031. Verbs may be formed from perceptible nouns and from adjectives by using them as verbs: ʻipay, flower:
Su riṗgir aranulen ʻepayu.
The roses bloomed yesterday.
Su riṗg-ir aranulen ʻepay-u
the rose-PL yesterday bloom\PST\IND-3
If the adjective is of the form CVC, then the verb takes the form VCVC: pas, bad; apas, be bad.
  • 032. Transitive verbs may be formed from adjectives by treating them as verbs: puyar, wide:
Eser sa yurin-na payaru.
They are widening the road.
Eser sa yurin-na payar-u
they the road-OBJ wide\NPST\IND-3

Nouns - Nanal Liḳdar نانال ليخظار

  • 033. Nouns are a class of words that function as the names of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.
  • 034. There are no noun classes in Liwadi.
  • 035. A noun must be preceded by a determiner or an adjective:
Su in yem ayadu.
The man is here.
Su in yem ayad-u
the man here be\NPST\IND-3
Yu inir yem ayadu.
Men are here.
Yu in-ir yem ayad-u
INDEF man-PL here be\NPST\IND-3
  • 036. Plurality (PL) is indicated by deleting the second vowel and placing it after the word with the suffix -r; the plural suffix bears the accent: sa erim, stone; sa ermir, the stones.
If the middle consonant is a stop, it is lenited. This is indicated orthographically with a dot under the consonant: sa medop, the river; sa meḍpor, the rivers; ya medop, a river; ya meḍpor, rivers.
Sa ermir bigak ayadu.
The stones are large.
Sa erm-ir bigak ayad-u
the stone-PL large be\NPST\IND-3
Em sa ermir-na pasada.
I see the stones.
Em sa erm-ir-na pasad-a
I the stone-PL-OBJ see\NPST\IND-3
If the noun is monosyllabic, -Vr is added: gab, fish; gabar, fishes.
If the noun is CVCV, -r is added: yońa, shoulder; yońar, shoulders.
  • 037. Possession is indicated by the preposition ne, of:
sa yitoy ne su tikag; the child's smile.
  • 038. The particle -na marks the direct object (OBJ) of the verb:
Em su ziʻop-na pasada.
I see the bird.
Em su ziʻop-na pasad-a
I the bird-OBJ see\NPST\IND-3
  • 039. Nouns naming a person characterized by an adjective are formed by using the animate definite article: zuʻip, young; su zuʻip, youth; tinam, old; su tinam, elder.
  • 040. Abstract nouns (-ty, -ness, -tion, etc.) are derived from adjectives by using the inanimate definite article: yizup, short; sa yizup, shortness.
  • 041. Nouns denoting perceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCoC: pataz, bathe; ya pitoz, bath.
  • 042. Nouns denoting imperceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCuC: nagap, order; nigup, order.
  • 043. A noun may be specified as masculine or feminine by using the words in and min, respectively: ziʻop, bird; minziʻop, hen; inziʻop, cock.
  • 044. Nouns may be used to modify other nouns: sa dap turak, the mountain stream.
  • 045. Collective nouns are formed from nouns or adjectives by using the word yuraz, group: sa ziʻpor yuraz, the flock of birds; sa gabar yuraz, the school of fish; sa ginńer yuraz, archipelago.
  • 046. The diminutive of nouns is formed with the prefix t(ė): in, man; tin, boy; min, woman; tėmin, girl.
  • 047. The agent of a verb is formed with the word nuhon, person: bamat, sing; bamat nuhon, singer.

Modifiers - Namod Liḳdar نامۄظ ليخظار

  • 048. In Liwadi grammar adjectives, adverbs and determiners are classed together as modifiers.

Adjectives - Kańop Liḳdar کاگۄٮ ليخظار

  • 049. Adjectives are a class of words which qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.
  • 050. Adjectives are placed before the noun: su ńor tin, the good boy.
  • 051. The one degree of comparison, known as the comparative (COMP), is formed by reduplication:
idol, red; idolidol, redder, reddest.
putoy, far; putoyputoy, farther, farthest.
  • 052. In comparisons than is translated by ini:
Wed ʻipay yidakyidak ini dad ʻipay adaya.
This flower is bluer than that flower
Wed ʻipay yidak~yidak ini dad ʻipay adaya
this flower COMP~blue than that FLOWER be\NPST\IND-3
  • 053. Negative comparison is formed with the word ʻeyoń, less: putoy', distant; ʻeyoń putoy, less/least distant.
  • 054. The comparison of equality is formed with the conjunction yol, as: idol, red; yol idol, as red:
Wed ʻipay yol idol yol gal ayadu.
This flower is as red as blood.
Wed ʻipay yol idol yol gal ayad-u
this flower as red as blood be-NPST\IND-3
  • 055. Participles are a form of a verb that is used to modify a noun, noun phrase, verb, or verb phrase, playing a role similar to an adjective or adverb.
  • 056. There are two participles in Liwadi.
    • a. The non-past participle has the form CaCuC: su nadud gab, the swimming fish.
    • b. The past participle has the form CeCuC: sa beńun nipad, the sunken boat.
  • 057. Nouns of material may be used like adjectives: sa erim rutiń, the stone house.
  • 058. Word negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the prefix o-: lunań, even; o-lunań, uneven.
  • 059. Adjectives with the meaning without are expressed with the preposition isi, without: tidor, hope; isi ya tidor, hopeless.
  • 060. Descriptive adjectives are derived from nouns by changing the vowels to o: yisun, anger; yoson, angry.
  • 061. Adjectives denoting pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the noun or verb root are derived from nouns by changing the vowels to i: soʻek, fog; siʻik, foggy; sataʻ, tire; sitiʻ, tired.

Determiners - Yaros Liḳdar ىارۄص ليخظار

  • 062. Determiners are a class of words that serve to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. They may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, etc.
  • 063. There are three definite articles, the animate su, the inanimate sa, and the proper se: in, man; su in, the man; erem, rock; sa erem, the rock; se Yugun, God.
  • 064. There are two indefinite articles, the animate yu and the inanimate ya: min, woman; yu min, a woman; litad, bed; ya litad, a bed.
The indefinite article is also used when no other modifier is present:
yu ʻiṗyar zu sa binel wilam ʻapayu.
Flowers bloom in the rainy season.
yu ʻiṗy-ar zu sa binel wilam ʻapay-u
INDEF flower-PL in the rain season bloom-NPST\IND-3
  • 065. Numerals precede the noun in the absence of a determiner:
Tid minir ranaku.
Three women are cooking.
Tid min-ir ranak-u
three woman-PL cook\NPST\IND-3
They follow the noun if the noun is preceded by a determiner:
Wed minir tid ranaku.
These three women are cooking.
Wed min-ir tid ranak-u
these woman-PL three cook\NPST\IND-3
  • 066. The demonstrative determiners are wed, this/these; and dad, that/those, e.g. dad ziʻop, that bird; wed ʻiṗyar, these flowers.
  • 067. The possessive determiners are formed by inserting the personal pronoun between the definite article and that which is possessed; the vowel of the pronoun is then elided:
sa 'm tag, my hand; su 'ń bab, your father.
  • 068. The elective indefinite determiner is nul, any.
  • 069. The assertive indefinite determiner is rag, some.

Numerals - Limor ليمۄر

  • 070. Liwadi has an octal numeral system.
Octal Table
1
 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
hed wan kub toń pem ser yim nam
9
 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
namhed namwan namkub namtoń nampem namser namyim wannam
17
 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
wannamhed wannamwan wannamkub wannamtoń wannampem wannamser wannamyim kubnam
25
 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
kubnamhed kubnamwan kubnamkub kubnamtoń kubnampem kubnamser kubnamyim tońnam
33
 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
tońnamhed tońnamwan tońnamkub tońnamtoń tońnampem tońnamser tońnamyim pemnam
41
 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
pemnamhed pemnamwan pemnamkub pemnamtoń pemnampem pemnamser pemnamyim sernam
49
 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
sernamhed sernamwan sernamkub sernamtoń sernampem sernamser sernamyim yimnam
57
 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
yimnamhed yimnamwan yimnamkub yimnamtoń yimnampem yimnamser yimnamyim namnam

Liwadi: Dictionaries

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