User:Masako/Kalo

Introduction

Kalo is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.

Kalo is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any other IAL. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.

Phonology

Kalo has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.

Consonants

	Labial	Coronal	Dorsal
Nasal	m	n
Plosive	p	t	k
Fricative		s
Approximant	w	l	j (y)

Vowels

	Front	Back
Close	i	u
Mid	e	o
Open	a

Diphthongs

There are two diphthongs [ai̯] ai, and [au̯] au. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.

Syllable Structure

All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.

phonotactics

A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.

Allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kalo allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Syntax

Classical Arabic is primarily VSO, but MSA (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be SVO, favoring full agreement over partial.

Chinese is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb.

Spanish unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable.

English word order is almost exclusively SVO.

Hindi is primarily an SOV language.

Based on the above information about the main source languages for Kalo, it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.

• wa toma - 1S eat - I eat. (SV)

• wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)

• o koma amo - DO woman love - The woman is loved. (OV)

questions

The interrogative particle ma (taken from Chinese (嗎) is used in conjunction with various nouns, adverbs, and adjectives to form specific questions.

non-polar questions

• ma - what; which
• ma ko - who, whom
• ma koyo - whose, of whom
• ma tenpo - when

• ma loka - where
• ma moto - how
• ma laka - how much, how many
• ma sapa - why

polar questions

Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle ma at the end of the sentence.

• wa wite le kasa

1S see PST house

I saw the house.

• ni wite le kasa ma

2S see PST house Q

Did you see the house?

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

Pronouns

kalo has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "-lo", and possessive with "-yo".

	singular	plural	possessive
1st person	wa I; me	walo we; us	wayo my; mine; our(s)
2nd person	ni you	nilo you (all)	niyo your(s)
3rd person	ko he; she; him; her; it	kolo they; them; those	koyo their(s)

• walo wite ni - 1pl see 2s - We see you.

• kolo ne kono wa - 3pl NEG know 1s - They don't know me.

Gender

TBD

爸 / 媽

Verbs

Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles. There are three basic tenses in Kalo, past, present, and future. The simple present is not marked, the past is marked by le from the Chinese particle (了), and the future is marked by sa from the Arabic construction (سَـ).

tense/mood	particle	example	translation
present	-	wa ila	I go
past	le	wa ila le	I went
future	sa	wa ila sa	I will go
conditional	kisa	wa ila kisa	I would go

• wa kome le - 1s eat PST - I ate.
• aki koyo kome - brother 3sg.GEN eat - His brother eats/is eating.
• nilo ne wite sa ko - 2pl NEG see FUT 3sg - You all will not see her.

positional verbs

Kalo does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.

• yu - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from (于)
• ila - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from (إلى)

Conditionals

Uncertainty is marked by ki, kisa, or kile. These are taken from Spanish (quizá) and used across the three basic tenses. It can also act as a subordinating conjunction, and conditional constructions, “if, whether”. It is also used to express possibility or probability.

• tela wa ki ni wite ko - tell 1s if 2s see 3s - Tell me if you can see her.
• ki ni amo yawe te pu yuma ne inpo - if 2sg like weather of today NEG important - Whether you like today’s weather does not matter.
• kisa pu yuma yuwa - maybe this day rain - It may rain (later) today.

Prepositions

• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar#Prepositions

Number

Kalo	number	English	Kalo	number	English
sunya	0	zero	na	7	seven
wa	1	one	pa	8	eight
li	2	two	nun	9	nine
san	3	three	ye	10	ten
si	4	four	aku / -ku	100	(one) hundred
pen	5	five	mila	1000	(one) thousand
we	6	six

When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "ke" precedes the number.

• ko yo le o kasa ke li

3s have PST O house NUM two

She had two houses.

• wa wite o nano ke si

1s see O man NUM four

I see four men.

Higher Numbers

• yewa - 11; eleven
• yeli - 12; twelve
• liye - 20; twenty
• liyesi - 24; twenty-four
• kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
• sankuweyepen - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five

Lexicon

Words in Kalo tend to function in multiple roles. The lexicon is arranged to include those roles within each entry. What follows is the working lexicon for Kalo.

• ARA - Arabic
• ELL - Greek
• ENG - English
• FRE - French
• GER - German
• HEB - Hebrew
• HIN - Hindi

• JPN - Japanese
• KOR - Korean
• PIE - Proto-Indo-European
• SPA - Spanish
• TUR - Turkish
• ZHO - Mandarin

• adj - adjective
• n - noun
• num - number/numeral
• part - particle
• prep - preposition
• pro - pronoun
• v - verb

a

• aku [-ku] (JPN ひゃく) - num - hundred; 100 | n - many; much; a lot
• amo (SPA amor) - v - like; love; adore | n - affection; adoration; love
• ante (SPA ante) - prep - before; in front; forward; ahead
• asi (SPA así) - part - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore
• ate (ARA عادي) - v - be normal; usual; customary; habitual | n habit; custom
• awa (ARA أو) - part - either; or; other
• ayo (ARA أي) - pro - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]

e

• e (SPA/ZHO e/和) - part - and; also; too

i

• ila (SPA إلى) - prep - to; toward; until; near | v - to move toward; go

k

• kan or kana (ARA/HEB كان/כן) - v - be; exist; live; occur | n - existence | part - yes; thus

• kisa (SPA quizá) - part - perhaps; maybe [also ki - if; kile - maybe 'it was']

• kono (SPA conocer) - v - know; be aware of; understand; recognize | n - knowledge; awareness

• kula (ARA كل) - v - be complete; whole | n - all; entire; every; each

• kun (SPA con/跟) - prep - with; by; via | v - use; employ

kai v should; ought to; need to; have to 該 ZHO kasa n / v house; building / live in; dwell casa SPA kate n / v writing; letters; mark; draw; carve خط ARA ke part number marker 个 ZHO kipu n / v stop; halt; cease; pause; discontinue وقف ARA ko n / pro person; individual; adult / he; she [3sg] 個 ZHO koyo part whose; of who 個 有 ZHO kute v listen; hear écouter FRE

l

• lana (HIN रहना) - v - remain; stay (still); stand; continue
• loka (SPA local) - n - place; location; point; spot

laka n numeral; digit; number; amount; sum رقم ARA lata n box; bucket; basket; container; vessel lata SPA le part past tense marker [PST] 了 ZHO li num two; double; duo 两 ZHO lo part plural marker [PL] 摞 ZHO luna n moon; satelite; orbiting body; month luna SPA

lapa n / v play; amuse; toy; enjoy لعب ARA

luwi n / v rain; precipitation lluvia SPA

m

• ma (ZHO 嗎) - part - what; which; question marker [Q]
• maka (ENG make) - v - make; do; cause; happen | n - action; reason; event
• maso (SPA más) - v - again; add; repeat; layer | n - more; addition; layer
• me (FRE mais) - part - but; however; although
• meno (FRE menos) - v - less; subtract; minus | n less; fewer; subtraction
• mente (SPA mente) - v - think; ponder; consider | n - thought; consideration; mind; mental state
• moto (SPA modo) - n - manner; method; how; way; mood

mala n woman; female; wife امرأة ARA mila num thousand; 1000 mil SPA muki n / v be important; matter / issue مهم ARA muna n moon; month moon ENG

n

• nai (JPN 内) - prep - inside; within; during; central; middle; center [locative and temporal]

• nesi (SPA necesitar) - v - need; require | n - necessity; a must

na num seven なな JPN nalu n / v succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into なる JPN nama v sleep; rest; relax نام ARA nano n man; male 男 ZHO naya v be new; fresh; young नया HIN ne part no; not; none; negative [NEG] nay ENG ni pro you [2sg] 你 ZHO note n night; darkness noche SPA nun num nine h₁néwn̥ PIE

o

• ola (SPA hola) - part - hello; goodbye | v - greet

o part direct object marker [DO] を JPN oma n mother; female parent Oma GER opa n father; male parent Opa GER

p

• po (SPA por/para) - prep - for; by; through; because | v - be about; move across
• poka (SPA poca) - v - (be) small; tiny; few; some; little
• pote (SPA poder) - v - be able to; can | n - ability; capability
• pu (TUR bu) - part - this; these [proximal or medial]
• pula (HIN बुरा) - v - (be) bad; spoiled; broken; to break down; wicked; evil

pa num eight 八 ZHO pala n word; morpheme; lexeme palabra SPA pan n food; bread; sustenance 饭 / pan ZHO / SPA pen num five πέντε ELL pesi n fish; swim pez SPA pina n child; offspring; kid ابن ARA pone v to put, to place, to set poner SPA pusu part both; "this and that" bu + şu TUR

s

• simi (ENG/SPA similar) - v - resemble; similar; like
• solo (SPA solo) - v - alone; solitary; only; unique
• su (TUR şu) - part - that; those [medial or distal]
• suku (ZHO 足夠) - v - be enough; adequate; sufficient; ample

sa part future tense marker [FUT] سَـ ARA saka/na n / v hot; heat; warm(th); fire سخن ARA salama n / v peace; calm; tranquility; quiet / be peaceful; be calm سلم ARA san num three; triple 三 ZHO sana n year; 365 days سنة ARA sapa n reason; motive; cause سبب ARA sawa n spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate زوج ARA se part each [other]; mutually; reciprocal 서로 KOR semana n week semana SPA si num four 四 ZHO sima n / v noun; name; be called اسم ARA siya prep / v under; below; down 下 ZHO sosa n juice; sauce; gravy; dressing sauce ENG sunya num zero; empty; nothing शून्य HIN

t

• ta (ZHO 大) - v - (be) big; large; heavy; long; tall | part very (much/many); extremely
• te (SPA/ZHO de/的) - prep - of; from
• tela or talo (PIE del) - v - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell | n - language; discussion; conversation

• tenpo (SPA tiempo) - n - time; hour; period; age

• tipa or tupa (ARA/HEB طيب/טוב) - v - (be) good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
• toma (SPA tomar) - v - eat; drink; ingest | n - eating; drinking

tanka v / part thank; show appreciation; express gratitude thank / danke ENG / GER tapo n / v destruction; damage; wreck; break; destroy 打破 ZHO tipa n / v good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK طيب ARA tiya n aunt/uncle tía SPA tonpa n sibling; compatriot; friend 同胞 ZHO tonye part same 同一 ZHO tusu n / v to discern, to find out, to learn 读书 ARA

w

• wa (ARA واحد) - num - one; single; singular; alone
• wa (ZHO 我) - pro - I; me [1sg]
• wan (ENG want) - v - want; desire; wish (for) | n - desire; want
• waya (HIN वयस्क) - v - grow; mature; develop | n - adult; mature thing
• we (PIE swéḱs) - num - six; 6
• weko (SPA hueco) - n - door, hole, orifice, window; port

wela prep / v outside; exterior; surface fuera SPA wenta n / v air; wind; void; essence; spirit viento SPA wino n / v alcohol; beer; wine; drink ~ vino SPA wite v look; see; observe; watch; read weyd PIE

y

• ya (ARA يا) - part - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
• yame (ARA جمع) - v - gather; group; collect | n - gathering; group; collection; set
• yati (ARA يد) - n - arm, hand, tactile organ
• ye (KOR 열) - num - 10; ten
• yeko (ZHO 以後) - prep - after; afterward(s); later | n - back; behind; rear
• yo (ZHO 有) - v - have; possess; hold
• yu (ZHO 於) - prep - in; at; to; by; than; out of [strictly locative]
• yuma (ARA يوم) - n - day; daylight; 24 hour period

zzz

92 even 94 Adjectives 95 96 the, a (technically articles) 97 this 98 that 99 good 100 bad 101 all 102 some 103 no 104 any 105 many 106 few 107 most 108 other 109 same 110 different 111 enough 112 one 113 two 114 a few 115 first 116 next 117 last (meaning “past”, e.g. “last Friday”) 118 last (meaning “final”) 119 easy 120 hard 121 early 122 late 123 important 124 interesting 125 fun 126 boring 127 beautiful 128 big 129 small 130 happy 131 sad 132 busy 133 excited 134 tired 135 ready 136 favorite 137 new 138 right (meaning “correct”) 139 wrong 140 true 141 Pronouns 142 143 I / me / my 144 145 I 146 you 147 she 148 he 149 it 150 we 151 you (plural) 152 they 153 Nouns 154 155 156 157 everything 158 something 159 nothing 160 everyone 161 someone 162 no one 163 (name of the language you’re studying) 164 English 165 thing 166 person 167 place 168 time (as in “a long time”) 169 time (as in “I did it 3 times”) 170 friend 171 woman 172 man 173 money 174 country 175 (name of your home country) 176 city 177 language 178 word 179 food 180 house 181 store 182 office 183 company 184 manager 185 coworker 186 job 187 work (as in “I have a lot of work to do”) 188 problem 189 question 190 idea 191 life 192 world 193 day 194 year 195 week 196 month 197 hour 198 mother, father, parent 199 daughter, son, child 200 wife, husband 201 girlfriend, boyfriend 202 More Verbs 203 204 work (as in a person working) 205 work (meaning “to function”, e.g. “the TV works”) 206 see 207 use 208 should 209 believe 210 practice 211 seem 212 come 213 leave 214 return 215 give 216 take 217 bring 218 look for 219 find 220 get (meaning “obtain”) 221 receive 222 buy 223 try 224 start 225 stop (doing something) 226 finish 227 continue 228 wake up 229 get up 230 eat 231 eat breakfast (in several languages, this is a verb) 232 eat lunch 233 eat dinner 234 happen 235 feel 236 create (aka “make”) 237 cause (aka “make”) 238 meet (meeting someone for the first time) 239 meet (meaning “to bump into”) 240 meet (an arranged meeting) 241 ask (a question) 242 ask for (aka “request”) 243 wonder 244 reply 245 mean 246 read 247 write 248 listen 249 hear 250 remember 251 forget 252 choose 253 decide 254 be born 255 die 256 kill 257 live 258 stay 259 change 260 help 261 send 262 study 263 improve 264 hope 265 care 266 Phrases 267 268 hello 269 goodbye 270 thank you 271 you’re welcome 272 excuse me (to get someone’s attention) 273 sorry 274 it’s fine (response to an apology) 275 please 276 yes 277 no 278 okay 279 My name is 280 What’s your name? 281 Nice to meet you. 282 How are you? 283 I’m doing well, how about you? 284 Sorry? / What? (if you didn’t hear something) 285 How do you say ______? 286 What does ______ mean? 287 I don’t understand. 288 Could you repeat that? 289 Could you speak more slowly, please? 290 Well (as in “well, I think…”) 291 Really? 292 I guess that 293 It’s hot. (talking about the weather) 294 It’s cold. (talking about the weather)