Senjecas Syntax Pt. 2

Pronunciation table

p	b	f	v	m̃	m			t	d	þ	ð	ɫ	l			ṡ	ż	s	z	r	n			k	g	x	ƣ	h	ȝ			š	s̨			i	e	a	ǫ	o	u			ĭ	ĕ	ŭ
/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/m̥/	/m/			/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/l̥/	/l/			/ʦ/	/ʣ/	/s/	/z/	/ɾ̥/	/n/			/k/	/g/	/ç/	/ʝ/	/j̊/	/j/			/sʷ/	/sʲ/			/i/	/e/	/ä/	/ɒ/	/o/	/u/			/ɪ/	/ɛ/	/ʊ/

Glossing abbreviations

1s/p = first person singular/plural	V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)	CAUS = causative	EQU = equative degree	INS = instrument	Q = interrogative particle
2s/p = second person singular/plural	ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)	CONV = conversive	F = feminine	INT = intensive prefix	QUOT = direct quotation
3p/m/d = third person proximal/medial/distal	ADV = adverb	DES = desiderative	FRQ = frequentative	M = masculine	REL = relativizer
	AG = agent	DIM = diminutive	FUT = future	PP = patient (past) participle	RPRF = recent perfective
A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)	AP = agent (active) participle	ELIS = elision	IMP = imperative	PRF = perfect	SBJ = subjunctive
G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)	AUG = augmentative	EP = epenthesis	INC = inchoative	PRV = privative prefix	SUP = supine
N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)		ELT = elative	IND = indicative	PST = past

4.8.5 Supine – kaaþfe̋e̋to

• 4.8.5.1 As there are no infinitives or gerunds in Senjecas, a form of the verb in -u is used in their place. This form is called the supine.

I can swim.

mu še̋mu ma̋ƣa:

• 4.8.5.2 A modifying adverb will precede the supine.

I can swim well.

mu súvi še̋mu ma̋ƣa:

• 4.8.5.3 Indirect quotations and questions are expressed by transforming the verb of the direct statement into the corresponding supine. The subject of the supine is in the accusative case. The tense of the supine remains the same as in the direct question. The interrogative word is retained. The indirect quotation or question is set off from the main clause by em dashes.

I've done that. I told you (that) I've done that.

mu nom kĭkı̋a: mu tús o—mum nom kĭkı̋u—e-te̋e̋a:

m-u	n-om	kĭĭ~kı̋-a			m-u	t-ús	o	m-um	n-om	kĭ~kı̋-u	e=te̋e̋-a
1s-N	3-A.s	PRF~do-IND			1s-N	2s-G	to	1s-A	3-A.s	PRF~do-SUP	PST=say-IND

I asked her when she would arrive.

mu nús o—num xán' u-tőpu—e-me̋ta:

m-u	n-ús	o	n-um	xán-'	u=tőp-u	e=me̋t-a
1s-N	3-G.s	to	3-A.s	when-ELIS	FUT-arrive-SUP	PST=ask-IND

• 4.8.5.4 The finite dependent verb may depend on adjectives corresponding in meaning to verbs which take an object supine, e.g., ability, fitness, desire, willingness.

Wanting to go, he sought permission.

a̋tu m̃e̋ṡantu. nu dőram e-ne̋e̋þa:

a̋t-u	m̃e̋ṡ-a-nt-u	n-u	dőr-am	e=ne̋e̋þ-a
go-SUP	wish-IND-AP-N.s	3-N.s	permission-A.s	PST=seek-IND

• 4.8.5.5 Any adjective, adverb, noun or verb may take a dependent supine to limit its meaning

This plant is useful for healing.

i-műűlo ȝe̋e̋ku ne̋uðro e̋sa:

i=műűl-o	ȝe̋e̋k-u	ne̋uðr-o	e̋s-a
this=plant-N.s	heal-SUP	useful-N.s	be-IND

The scene was a wonder to behold.

na̋kaþo na̋ku dı̋żo e-e̋sa

na̋k-a-þ-o	na̋k-u	dı̋ż-o	e=e̋s-a
see-IND-PP-N.s	see-SUP	wonder-N.s	PST=be-IND

• 4.8.5.6 The supine is used where other languages would use the gerund.

Bargaining with the merchant is fun.

k̬apűs þóósa lı̋ku se̋bo vűűa:

k̬ap-űs	þóósa	lı̋k-u	se̋b-o	vűű-a
merchant-G.s	against	bargain-SUP	fun-N.s	be-IND

My wife and I find riding horses very relaxing.

mu-ǧe̋nusk̬e muk̬e lábu ṡa̋lantu mőren re̋iðu de̋e̋sa:

mu=ǧe̋n-u=k̬e	m-u=k̬e	lábu	ṡa̋l-a-nt-u	mőr-en	re̋ið-u	de̋e̋s-a
my=wife-N.s=and	1s-N=and	very	relax-IND-AP-N.s	horse-A.p	ride-SUP	find-IND

• 4.8.5.7 The infinitive as the subject of a verb is translated by the supine.

To swim (swimming) is healthy.

še̋mu sa̋nu e̋sa:

še̋m-u	sa̋n-u	e̋s-a
swim-SUP	healthy-N.s	be-IND

It is possible for you to do that.

nom kı̋u tús o ma̋ƣa:

n-om	kı̋-u	t-ús	o	ma̋ƣ-a
3-A.s	do-SUP	2s.G	to	be.possible-IND

4.8.6 Participles – kááþfeeþga̋nos

• 4.8.6.1 The participle is a verbal adjective, in function partaking of the nature of verb and adjective. There are two participles in Senjecas, the active and the passive. Each of these occurs in all the moods.
  • 4.8.6.1.1 The active participle (AP) is formed by suffixing -nti to the mood root. The active participle describes that which it modifies as acting, e.g., m̃e̋nanti, loving, as in m̃e̋nantu ta̋a̋ta, loving father.
  • 4.8.6.1.2 The passive participle (PP) is formed by suffixing -þi to the mood root. The paassive participle describes that which it modifies as being acted upon, e.g., m̃e̋naþi, beloved, as in m̃e̋naþu ta̋a̋ta, beloved father.
• 4.8.6.2 As with any adjective, participles may take the -u ending and function as nouns, e.g., m̃e̋nantu, lover; m̃e̋naþu, beloved. It is then equivalent to "he who, they who, that which, etc.," in English.

He who is speaking is my father.

ȝe̋kantu mu-ta̋a̋ta e̋sa:

ȝe̋k-a-nt-u	mu=ta̋a̋t-a	e̋s-a
speak-IND-AP-N.s	my=father-N.s	be-IND

• 4.8.6.3 As an adjective, the participle may be modified by an adverb, e.g., súvi m̃e̋naþu ta̋a̋ta, well-beloved father.
• 4.8.6.4 As a verb, the participle may take a direct object

Seeing the approaching storm, the girl went back into the house.

ȝővanto ðűűom na̋kantu. ƥa̋þu m̃e̋e̋som éna e-ke̋ra:

ȝőv-a-nto-Ø	ðűű-om	na̋k-a-ntu-Ø	ƥa̋þ-u	m̃e̋e̋s-om	éna	e=ke̋r-a
approach-IND-AP-ABS	storm-A.s	see-IND-AP-ABS	girl-N.s	house-A.s	into	PST=return-IND

4.9 Absolute Constructions – m̃ı̋ı̋o ȝe̋xtos

• Adverbial clauses may be translated by absolute constructions. Absolute constructions consist of a noun or pronoun and a participle which are not grammatically connected with the main clause. The noun or pronoun may not refer to the subject of the sentence.
  • 4.9.1 When the absolute construction describes a non-motion event, the construction is in the genitive case.

When he was prince, we were happy.

nús asurűs e-vuuantűs. m̃us ka̋itus e-vűűa:

n-ús	asur-űs	e=vuu-a-nt-űs	m̃-us	ka̋it-us	e=vűű-a
3-G.s	prince-G.s	PST=be-IND-PP-G.s	1p-N	happy-N.s	PST=be-IND

While they are eating, the chorus is singing.

núm edantűm. ga̋a̋ilus ga̋a̋ȝa:

n-úm	ed-a-nt-űm	ga̋a̋i-l-us	ga̋a̋ȝ-a
3-G.p	eat-IND-AP-G.p	sing-AG-N.p	sing-IND

• • 4.9.2 When the absolute construction describes an event involving motion, the construction is in the accusative case.

After the army had crossed the bridge, the citizens fled.

őmum þőlom tĭta̋rantum. e̋nrus e-őőða:

őm-um	þől-om	tĭ~ta̋r-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=őőð-a
army-A.s	bridge-A.s	PRF~cross-IND-AP-A.s	citizen-N.p	PST=flee-IND

Before the army neared the bridge, the citizens fled.

őmum þőlom e-ȝőbantum. e̋nrus e-őőða:

őm-um	þől-om	e=ȝőb-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=őőð-a
army-A.s	bridge-A.s	PST=approach-IND-AP-A.s	citizen-N.p	PST=flee-IND

4.10 Subordinate Clauses – fasm̃a̋iþo

• A subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and is, therefore, attached to an independent clause. Although a subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate, it sounds incomplete when standing alone. A subordinate clause is joined to a sentence with a subordinate conjunction and may precede or follow the sentence. An em dash is used to separate the subordinate clause from the main clause. There is no distinction made in Senjecas between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses.

4.10.1 Adverbial clauses with the indicative mood – m̃e̋e̋ro kaaþga̋no fasm̃a̋iþos

• 4.10.1.1 Time clauses (ténfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. They are introduced by the conjunctions when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until, till, hardly, scarcely, and no sooner.

Her dog died when she was young.

nu-na̋a̋ȝe e-ne̋ṡa—méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:

nu=na̋a̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋ṡ-a	méti	be̋k-u	e=e̋s-a
her=dog-N.s	PST=die-IND	when	young-N.s	PST=be-IND

• 4.10.1.2. Reason clauses (fúsfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate the reason for something. They are introduced by the conjunctions because, since, as, for, now that, considering that, and given that.

She can’t stay angry, because she loves him.

su ge̋gu še̋du fe̋e̋a—hi num m̃e̋na:

s-u	ge̋g-u	še̋d-u	fe̋e̋-a	hi	n-u	n-um	m̃e̋n-a
3p-N.s	angry-N.s	remain-SUP	unable-IND	because	3m-A.s	love-IND

• 4.10.1.3 Result clauses (ƥúvfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate the result of some action. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, and with the result that.

My leg hurts so much that I cannot walk.

la̋ko šo méévi de̋ba—ƥúvi ne̋ðu fe̋e̋a:

la̋k-o	šo	meé-vi	de̋b-a	ƥűvi	ne̋ð-u	fe̋e̋-a
leg-N.s	so	much-ADV	hurt.IND	so.that	walk-SUP	unable-IND

He opened the window so roughly that it broke.

su šo féðvi tűngom e-t̬ı̋va. taádi no e-ȝa̋fa:

s-u	šo	féð-vi	tűng-om	e=t̬ı̋v-a	taádi	noo	e=ȝa̋f-a
3p-N.s	so	force-ADV	window-A.s	PST=open-IND	so.that	3m-N.s	PST=break-IND

• 4.10.1.4 Concessive clauses (áifasm̃a̋iþros) indicate that one statement contrasts with another. They are introduced by the conjunctions although, (even) though, and while.

We will leave, even though it is raining.

m̃us u-vı̋da—sámi sűűma:

m̃-us	u=vı̋d-a	sámi	sűűm-a
1p-N	FUT=leave-IND	even.though	rain-IND

• 4.10.1.5 Clauses of place (ðééfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate the location or position of something. They are introduced by the adverbs that answer the question “where?”: anywhere, everywhere, etc.

The child is happy where he is.

ṡı̋ṡu ka̋itu vűűa—vái vűűa:

ṡı̋ṡ-u	ka̋it-u	vűű-a	vái	vűű-a
child-N.s	happy-N.s.	be-IND	where	be-IND

• 4.10.1.6 Clauses of manner (móóðfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate someone's behavior or the way something is done. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, like, and the way.

The soldiers carried out the plan as the general had ordered.

sőþlus pe̋e̋kam e-þűka—épi soþve̋e̋l̤u e-e̋e̋va:

sőþl-us	pe̋e̋k-am	e=þűk-a	épi	soþ-ve̋e̋l-l-u	e=e̋e̋v-a
soldier-N.p	plan-A.s	PST=carry.out-IND	as	army-in.charge.of-AG--N.s	PST=PRF~order-IND

4.10.2 Adverbial clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so kaaþga̋no fasm̃a̋iþos

• 4.10.2.1 Conditional clauses (k̨árfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences. They are introduced by the words if, unless, and lest. The verb in conditional clauses is in the subjunctive mood.

If it rains tomorrow, we won’t go.

ébi ṡúm̃vi suum̃e̋ȝa—m̃us u-a̋ta ne:

ébi	ṡúm̃-vi	suum̃-e̋ȝa	m̃-us	u=a̋t-a	ne
if	tomorrow-ADV	rain-SBJ	1p-N	FUT=go-IND	not

• 4.10.2.2 Clauses of purpose (táðfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate the purpose of an action. They are introduced by the words so that and in order that.

He steadied the horse so that she could mount.

ur-su mőrem e-pa̋ga—taád' ii-nu pűűnu maƣe̋ȝa:

ur=s-u	mőr-em	e=pa̋g-a	taád-'	ii=n-u	pűűn-u	maƣ-e̋ȝ-a
M=3p-N.s	horse-A.s	PST=steady-IND	so.that	F=3m-N.s	mount-SUP	be.able-SBJ

Clauses of purpose may not be deranked in Senjecas. One may say, “He steadied the horse so that he could mount,” but not, “He steadied the horse in order to mount.”

4.10.3 Noun clauses with the indicative mood – ȝe̋to fe̋e̋to fasm̃a̋iþos

• A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or the object of a preposition. Some of the relative conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, whom, why, what, how, when, whoever, whomever, and where.
• Noun clauses are placed where a simple noun would be placed.
• 4.10.3.1 Subject

What you said displeases me.

tu táum e-te̋e̋a—mum sűűra:

t-u	tá-om	e=te̋e̋-a	m-um	sűűr-a:
2s-N	REL-N.s	PST=say-IND	1s-A	displease-IND

• 4.10.3.2 Predicate nominative
• When the noun clause functions as a predicate nominative the noun clause precedes the main clause.

The good news is that everyone is still here.

ȝa vísu éstu íðu vűűa—va̋a̋do te̋e̋o e̋sa:

ȝa	vís-u	éstu	íðu	vűű-a	va̋a̋do-Ø	te̋e̋-o	e̋s-a
REL	everyone-N.s	still	here	be-IND	good-ABS	news-N.s	be-IND

• 4.10.3.3 Direct Object

I know what you said.

mu—tu táom e-te̋e̋a—sa̋a̋ra:

m-u	t-u	tá-om	e=te̋e̋-a	sa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	2s-N	REL-A.s	PST=say-IND	know-IND

I know why you said it.

mu—tu fúsi som e-te̋e̋a—sa̋a̋ra:

m-u	t-u	fúsi	s-om	e=te̋e̋-a	sa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	2s-N	why	3p-A.s	PST=say-IND	know-IND

• 4.10.3.4 Object of a preposition

He will give this to whoever arrives first.

nu—k̬enús o þúntu tőpa—som u-dőőa:

n-u	k̬en-ús	o	þúntu	tőp-a	s-om	u=dőő-a
3-N.s	whoever-G.s	to	first-ADV	arrive-IND	this-A.s	FUT=give-IND

4.10.4 Noun clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so fe̋e̋to fasm̃a̋iþos

• 4.10.4.1 Clauses of fearing (nááfasm̃a̋iþros)

I (feared) was afraid (that) this would happen.

mu—ȝa so moode̋ȝa—e-na̋a̋a:

seī

m-u	ȝa	s-o	mood-e̋ȝ-a	e=na̋a̋-a
1s-N	REL	this-N.s	happen-SBJ	PST=fear-IND

I (feared) was afraid (that) that had happened.

mu—ȝa no e-mŭmoode̋ȝa—e-na̋a̋a:

m-u	ȝa	n-o	e=mŭ~mood-e̋ȝa	e=na̋a̋-a
1s-N	REL	that-N.s	PST=PRF~happen-SBJ	PST=fear-IND

• 4.10.4.2 Clauses of hoping (ísfasm̃a̋iþros)

I hope (that) he will come for a visit.

mu—ȝa nu ƣőstam tááda u-ǧeme̋ȝa—ı̋ṡa:

m-u	ȝa	n-u	ƣőst-am	tááda	u=ǧem-e̋ȝa	ı̋ṡ-a
1-N.s	REL	3-N.s	visit-A.s	for	FUT=come-SBJ	hope-IND

• 4.10.4.3 Clauses of desiring (píírfasm̃a̋iþros)

He wants his son to be strong.

su—ȝa sűűnu m̃a̋lu ese̋ȝa—m̃e̋ṡa:

s-u	ȝa	sűűn-u	m̃a̋l-u	es-e̋ȝ-a	m̃e̋ṡ-a
3-N.s	REL	son-N.s	strong-N.s	be-SBJ	want-IND

4.10.5 Adjectival (Relative) Clauses – ȝe̋to gansa̋m̃o fasm̃a̋iþos

• Adjectival clauses function as adjectives, answering questions such as "what kind?", "how many?" or "which one?". They are introduced by the relative adverbs (when, where, why) or pronouns (who, whom, whose, that, which). Like all adjectives they precede the noun they describe.

This is the ball (that/which) I was bouncing.

so—mu táom e-ı̋ta—ge̋lo e̋sa:

s-o	tá-om	m-u	e=ı̋t-a	ge̋l-o	e̋s-a
this-N.s	REL-A.s	1s-N	PST=bounce-IND	ball-N.s	be-IND

That is the house where I grew up.

so—mu vái e-ƣa̋a̋ra—m̃e̋e̋so e̋sa:

n-o	m-u	vái	e=ƣa̋a̋r-a	m̃e̋e̋s-o	e̋s-a
that-N.s	1s-N	where	PST=grow.up-IND	house-N.s	be-IND

He is the man whose horse died.

nu—nu-mőr' e-ne̋ṡa—m̃ı̋ru e̋sa:

n-u	ta-ús	mőr-'	e=ne̋ṡ-a	m̃ı̋r-u	e̋s-a
3-N.s	REL-G.s	horse-ELIS	PST=die-IND	man-N.s	be-IND

4.10.6 Conditional clauses – k̨a̋ro fasm̃a̋iþos

• Conditional clauses (protasis) are introduced by the conjunction ébi and (with one exception) have their verb in the subjunctive mood. The main clause (apodosis) is introduced by the conjunction toaári and is in the subjunctive mood. In these clauses, the protasis precedes the apodosis. An em dash is used to separate the two clauses.
• 4.10.6.1 Future More-Vivid sentences express future results of probable or expected conditions. The verb in the apodosis is in the future indicative because it has not happened yet.

If it rains, (then) the roads will be wet.

ébi suum̃e̋ȝa—toáári m̃e̋ȝos ma̋a̋nos u-vuue̋ȝa:

ébi	suum̃-e̋ȝa	toáári	m̃e̋ȝ-os	ma̋a̋n-os	u=vuu-e̋ȝ-a
if	rain-SBJ	then	road-N.p	wet-N.p	FUT=be-SBJ

• 4.10.6.2 Future Less-Vivid sentences express future results for conditions that are considered improbable. In this case, the main verb is also in the subjunctive mood.

If I had enough money, I would buy a boat.

ébi mu ma̋to pı̋ı̋nom e-ude̋ȝa—toáári na̋a̋m̃om sae̋ȝa:

ébi	m-u	ma̋to-Ø	dőþ-om	e=ud-e̋ȝa	toáári	na̋a̋m̃-om	sa-e̋ȝa
if	1s-N	enough-ABS	money-A.s	PST=have-SBJ	then	boat-A.s	buy-SBJ

• 4.10.6.3 Contrafactual sentences (present and past mutatis mutandis) express the results of untrue conditions. Both verbs are in the subjunctive mood.

If I were king (and I'm not), you would be queen.

ébi m' ur-re̋e̋ƣu vuue̋ȝa—toáári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vuue̋ȝa:

ébi	m-'	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vuu-e̋ȝa	toáári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vuu-e̋ȝa
if	1s-ELIS	M=king-N.s	be-SBJ	then	2s-N	F=king-N.s	be-SBJ

If I had been king (and I wasn't), you would have been queen.

ébi m' ur-re̋e̋ƣu e-vÿvuue̋ȝa—toáári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vÿvuue̋ȝa:

ébi	m-'	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	e-vŭ ~vuu-e̋ȝa	toáári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vŭ~vuu-e̋ȝa
if	1s-ELIS	M=king-N.s	PST=PRF~be-SBJ	then	2s-N	F=king-N.s	PRF~be-SBJ

• 4.10.6.4 Present General sentences are an exception. Their verbs are in the indicative mood for they describe conditions that are true.

If I am king (and I am), then you are queen.

ébi ur-re̋e̋ƣu vűűa—toáári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vűűa:

ébi	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-a	toáári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-a:
if	M=king-N.s	be-IND	then	2s-N	F=king-N.s	be-IND

• 4.10.6.5 In other situations, the verb in the protasis is in the subjunctive mood.

If she is here now, I am glad.

ébi nu ímu íðu vuue̋ȝa—toáári mu ra̋a̋du vűűa.

ébi	n-u	ímu	íðu	vuu-e̋ȝa	toáári	m-u	ra̋a̋d-u	vűű-a.
if	3-N.s	now	here	be-SBJ	then	1s-N	glad-N.s	be-IND

4.10.7 Independent Clauses – še̋vo fa̋so fasm̃a̋iþos

• 4.10.7.1 Independent clauses introduced by the postposition ša, but for.

But for the lightning we would/might not have seen the enemy.

hele̋' ša—m̃us n̨e̋rtum nĭnake̋ȝa mee:

hel-e̋-'	ša	m̃-us	n̨e̋rt-um	nĭ~nak-e̋ȝa	mee:
lightning-G.s-ELIS	but.for	1p-N	enemy-A.s	PRF~see-SBJ	not

• 4.10.7.2 To make a wish in an independent clause.

May you be happy!

(tú) ka̋itu ese̋ȝa:

t-ú	ka̋it-u	es-e̋ȝa:
2s-V	happy-N.s	be-SBJ

• 4.10.7.3 To make a polite request, instead of adding "please" to a command. This construction is always used with superiors.

Sit down!

tú se̋de

t-ú	se̋d-e
2s-V	sit-IMP

Please/Do sit down.

tú sede̋ȝa

t-ú	sed-e̋ȝ-a
2s-V	sit-SBJ

4.11 Conjunctions – ƣeðsa̋m̃os

• A conjunction is a word or a phrase that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses together. It is an invariable particle that, with but few exceptions, ends in –i. A list of conjunctions can be found in Appendix C.

4.11.1 Coordinating conjunctions

• A coordinating conjunction (pa̋ro ƣeðsa̋m̃o) joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences. The two equal clauses or sentences are separated by a k̬ilbőto.

The doctor arrived but it was too late.

le̋e̋gu e-tőpa. ésti kétu xa̋lo e-e̋sa:

le̋e̋g-u	e=tőp-a	ésti	kétu	xa̋l-o	e=e̋s-a
doctor-N.s	PST=arrive-IND	but	too	late-N.s	PST=be-IND

• • 4.11.1.1 Da, and, is used to connect two or more sentences or clauses. The subject, if the same, need not be repeated.

I wrote a story and sold it.

mu ɫőmom e-ȝa̋ra da som e-fa̋a̋ra:

m-u	ɫőm-om	e=ȝa̋r-a	da	s-om	e=fa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	story-A.s	PST=write-IND	and	3p-A.s	PST=sell-IND

• • • 4.11.1.1.1

The enclitic conjunction "'-k̬e, and, is used to connect two or more individual words, or, at most, words with a single-word modifier.

I like apples and pears.

mu abe̋lonk̬e k̨orte̋monk̬e ka̋a:

m-u	abe̋l-on=k̬e	k̨orte̋m-on=k̬e	ka̋-a
1s-N	apple-A.pl=and	pear-A.pl=and	like-IND

• • 4.11.1.2 m̃o, or, is used to connect two or more sentences or clauses. The subject, if the same, need not be repeated.

I will come or I will call you.

m' u-ǧe̋ma m̃o tum u-ha̋m̃a:

m-'	u=ǧe̋m-a	m̃o	t-um	u=ha̋m̃-a
1s-ELIS	FUT=come-IND	or	2s-A	FUT=call-IND

• • • 4.11.1.2.1 The enclitic conjunction "'-m̃e, or, is used to connect two or more individual words, or, at most, words with a single-word modifier.

I will bring an apple, (or) a pear, or a peach.

mu abe̋lomm̃e k̨orte̋momm̃e te̋fomm̃e u-tőƣa:

m-u	abe̋l-om=m̃e	k̨orte̋m-om=m̃e	te̋f-om=m̃e	u=tőƣ-a
1s-N	apple-A.s=or	pear-A.s=or	peach-A.s=or	FUT=bring-IND

• • • 4.11.1.2.2 If there are only two alternatives, the preceding can be translated using either…or.

I will bring either an apple or a pear.

mu abe̋lomm̃e k̨orte̋momm̃e u-tőƣa:

m-u	abe̋l-om=m̃e	pı̋s-om=m̃e	u=tőƣ-a
1s-N	apple-A.s=or	pear-A.s=or	FUT=bring-IND

• • • 4.11.1.2.3 When or indicates a synonymous or equivalent expression, it is translated by the phrase xo te̋ida, which means.

He suffers from hepatitis, or a liver disease.

su ȝekŭṡe̋e̋m̃am xo te̋ida ȝekŭda̋mom da̋ma:

s-u	ȝekŭṡe̋e̋m̃-am	x-o	te̋id-a	ȝekŭda̋m-om	da̋ma
3p-N.s	hepatitis-A.s	which-N.s	mean-IND	liver.disease-A.s	suffer.from-IND

• • • 4.11.1.2.4 When or indicates uncertainty or indefiniteness, it is translated by the adverb máƣvi, maybe.

He owns two or/maybe three horses.

su d̬ő máƣvi tı̋r mőren űða:

s-u	d̬ő	máƣ=vi	tı̋r	mőr-en	űð-a
3p-N.s	two	possible-ADV	three	horse-A.p	own-IND

4.11.2 Correlative conjunctions

• Correlative conjunctions (ȝémƣeðsa̋m̃o) work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence.

Both the soldiers and the nobles will come to the dance.

vőőu sőþlus vőőu kőővus me̋bom do u-ǧe̋ma:

vőőu-Ø	sőþl-us	vőőu-Ø	kőőv-us	me̋b-om	do	u=ǧe̋m-a
both-ABS	soldier-N.p	both-ABS	noble-N.p	dance-A.s	to	FUT=come-IND

4.11.3 Subordinating conjunction

• A subordinating conjunction (fa̋so ƣeðsa̋m̃o) joins an independent and a dependent clause. The two clauses are separated by a an em dash (meinbőto).

Her dog died when she was young.

nús na̋a̋ȝ' e-ne̋ṡa. méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:

n-ús	na̋a̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋ṡ-a	méti	be̋k-u	e=e̋s-a
3m-G.s	dog-N.s	PST=die-IND	when	young-N.s	PST=be-IND

4.12 Direct Quotations – se̋e̋iða anva̋a̋as

• Direct quotations are treated as independent sentences, the quotation following the verb of saying. The quotative particle (QUOT) m̃a(r) is placed before and after the quoted words. The form m̃ar is used if followed by a word beginning with a vowel and at the end of the quotation.

I said, "I will go to the store."

mu e-te̋e̋a: m̃a mu sade̋mom do u-a̋ta m̃ar:

m-u	e=te̋e̋-a	m̃a	m-u	sade̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a	m̃ar
1s-N	PST=say-IND	QUOT	1s-N	store-N.s	to	FUT=go-IND	QUOT

I asked, "Will you go to the store?"

mu e-me̋ta: m̃a tu sade̋mom do u-a̋tame m̃ar:

m-u	e=me̋t-a	m̃a	t-u	sade̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a=me	m̃ar
1s-N	PST=ask-IND	QUOT	2s-N	store-A.s	to	FUT=go-IND=Q	QUOT

4.13 Indirect Speech – alse̋e̋iða ȝe̋ka

• 4.13.1 In indirect speech the exact words of someone are reported by someone else. The verb in the main clause is a verb of speaking (speak, say, tell, report, answer, reply, respond), of knowing (know, understand, realize), or of perceiving (hear, feel, sense). The reported words are placed after the verb with the reported verb as a supine and its subject in the accusative case. The tense of the reported verb is the same as the verb in the direct speech.

He said, "It is raining hard." su e-te̋e̋a m̃a feéðvi sűűm̃a m̃ar: He said (that) it was raining hard. su e-te̋e̋a feéðvi sűűm̃u: He said, "It was raining hard." su e-te̋e̋a m̃a fééðvi e-sűűm̃a m̃ar: He said (that) it was raining hard. su e-te̋e̋a fééðvi e-sűűm̃u:

• 4.13.2 In indirect questions the implied direct question is placed after the verb with the reported verb as a supine and its subject in the accusative case. The interrogative word is changed to its relative counterpart. The tense of the reported verb is the same as the verb in the direct speech.

Why did you do that? tu xáru som e-kı̋a: I know why you did that. mu sa̋a̋ra f̨údi tu som e-kı̋u:

4.14 Interrogative Sentences – méþm̃o ševm̃a̋iþos

• 4.14.1 A lexically marked question is one that contains an interrogative pronoun, pronominal adjective or adverb. The verb in this type of question does not take the interrogative postclitic -me. Note that an interrogative word is placed in the position of its part of speech, which is not necessarily sentence initial.

Who is coming across the field?

xu lőukom tára ǧe̋ma:

x-u	lőuk-om	tára	ǧe̋m-a
who-N.s	field-A.s	across	come-IND

When will the cobbler return those tools?

þaavta̋m̃lu xánu a-xe̋mon u-ke̋ra:

þaavta̋m̃l-u	xánu	i=xe̋m-on	u=ke̋r-a
cobbler-N.s	when	that=tool-A.p	FUT=return-IND

• 4.14.2 It is possible for a lexically marked sentence to contain two or more interrogative words.

Who will help us and when (will he)?

xu xánu m̃un u-re̋e̋ga:

x-u	xánu	m̃-un	u=re̋e̋g-a
who-N.s	when	1p-A	FUT=help-IND

• 4.14.3 The interrogative suffix -me, added to the modal base of the verb, is used to mark questions that are not marked lexically. It implies nothing as to the answer expected. There is no alteration of the tones.

Do you drink wine?

tu m̃őinom pőőȝame:

t-u	m̃őin-om	pőőȝ-a=me
2s-N	wine-A.s	drink-IND=Q

• • 4.14.3.1 In answering this type of question, "yes" and "no" are not used. Instead, the verb is repeated without a pronoun subject.

Yes, I do. pőőȝa:

No, I don't. pőőȝa ne:

• • 4.14.3.2 If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made and is followed by the phrase ṡ̨őkame, agree-Q.

You are drinking wine, aren't you (don’t you agree)? tu m̃e̋inom pőőȝa. ṡ̨őxame:

The answer is either ṡ̨őka, "agree," or ṡ̨őka ne, "not agree."

• • 4.14.3.3 If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made and is followed by the phrase, ṡ̨őkame, "agree-Q".

You are not drinking wine, are you (don’t you agree)? tu m̃e̋inom pőőȝa ne. ṡ̨őkame:

The answer is either ṡ̨őka, "agree," or ṡ̨őka ne, "not agree".