Senjecas Syntax Pt. 1

Pronunciation table

p	b	f	v	m̃	m			t	d	þ	ð	ɫ	l			ṡ	ż	s	z	r	n			k	g	x	ƣ	h	ȝ			š	s̨			i	e	a	ǫ	o	u			ĭ	ĕ	ŭ
/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/m̥/	/m/			/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/l̥/	/l/			/ʦ/	/ʣ/	/s/	/z/	/ɾ̥/	/n/			/k/	/g/	/ç/	/ʝ/	/j̊/	/j/			/sʷ/	/sʲ/			/i/	/e/	/ä/	/ɒ/	/o/	/u/			/ɪ/	/ɛ/	/ʊ/

Glossing abbreviations

1s/p = first person singular/plural	V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)	CAUS = causative	EQU = equative degree	INS = instrument	Q = interrogative particle
2s/p = second person singular/plural	ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)	CONV = conversive	F = feminine	INT = intensive prefix	QUOT = direct quotation
3p/m/d = third person proximal/medial/distal	ADV = adverb	DES = desiderative	FRQ = frequentative	M = masculine	REL = relativizer
	AG = agent	DIM = diminutive	FUT = future	PP = patient (past) participle	RPRF = recent perfective
A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)	AP = agent (active) participle	ELIS = elision	IMP = imperative	PRF = perfect	SBJ = subjunctive
G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)	AUG = augmentative	EP = epenthesis	INC = inchoative	PRV = privative prefix	SUP = supine
N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)		ELT = elative	IND = indicative	PST = past

Part IV – Syntax - pűlo v - m̃aiþrĕb̨őra

4.1 - Word Order - sam̃pa̋fa

• 4.1.1 Senjecas has an object-verb (OV) syntax, which means that all modifiers (adjectives, possessives, postpositional phrases, clauses) are placed before the noun they modify. The finite verb is the last element in its sentence.

• 4.1.2. Sentence order is: (subject) + (adverbial time phrase) + (adverbial place phrase) + (other postpositional phrase) + (object) + finite verb + (interrogative) + (negative).

The millstone under the oak tree is heavy.

perk̬ı̋s néra molta̋ino gűűro e̋sa:

The stag whose antlers are broken is fighting.

ȝa ne-ṡa̋a̋ros ȝa̋faþos vűa—ɠűle ṡa̋ta:

We are going to the store at noon.

m̃us naaża̋s sade̋mom do u-a̋ta:

• 4.1.3 A verb in the imperative mood is placed last in the sentence. The imperative form is used for the jussive and the hortatory moods as well. If the context is clear, no personal pronoun is needed as subject. If the imperative verb has a direct object, a predicate adjective, or a dependent verb, these precede the imperative verb.

Throw the ball.

(tú) ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e:

• 4.1.4 If the personal pronoun is repeated in the sentence, the subject pronoun is omitted.

Throw your ball.

tús ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e:

Throw his ball.

(tú) nús ge̋lom ȝe̋e̋e:

• 4.1.5 In an OV language titles are postposed.

King William I reigned 21 years.

þűntu m̃ilhe̋lmu re̋e̋ƣu d̬őfoos þűn dı̋lon e-zı̋la:

4.2 Definitions - tősas

• 4.2.1 A sentence expresses a thought in words. Syntax treats of the relation of these words to one another. A sentence may contain a declaration, a question, a command (imperative or subjunctive), or an exclamation. Each of these may be either affirmative or negative.

• 4.2.2 Every sentence must contain a verb. The verb may or may not be accompanied by other words. The subject is that about which something is stated. The predicate is that which is stated about the subject. For example, in the sentence ma̋kis na̋nmis vűűa, the poppies are in bloom, "the poppies" is the subject and "are in bloom" is the predicate.

• 4.2.3. A verb makes the simplest form of sentence:

Descriptions of the weather: sűűm̃a, It is raining.

When the context is clear: (nu) re̋e̋sa, He runs.

• 4.2.4 A simple sentence contains only one clause.

• 4.2.5 When any form of e̋sa or vűűa, be, connects the subject with a following noun, adjective, or phrase, the verb is called the copula, and what follows is called the predicate, e.g., ma̋nos sőȝos vűűa, (my) hands are cold. Because there are two words expressing existence, the copula may not be omitted in Senjecas.

• 4.2.6 That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the object. The object may be either direct or indirect, e.g., in nu tı̋r me̋e̋on te̋rnon oþús o e-lűƣa, he promised him three measures of wheat, "three measures" is the direct object and "him" the indirect object.

• 4.2.7 Verbs which can have a direct object are called transitive; those which cannot are called intransitive. In Senjecas, most verbs are ambitransitive, that is, they can be either transitive or intransitive.

4.3 Predicate Noun and Adjective – m̃a̋iþo fe̋e̋tok̬e feeþga̋nok̬e

• 4.3.1 With verbs signifying to be, to become, to appear, to taste, to be named, to be chosen, to be made, to be thought, to be regarded, etc., a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject. These verbs are called copulative verbs.

The king has become angered by your speech.

re̋ƣu tús leuðsam̃ős ge̋gaþu ı̋ı̋la:

This man is king.

i-m̃ı̋ru re̋ƣu e̋sa:

These apples taste good.

i-abe̋los da̋los że̋e̋sa:

• 4.3.2 The predicate adjective with these verbs agrees with the subject in class, number and case.

That girl is very pretty.

a-ƥa̋þu lábu gőbu e̋sa:

• 4.3.3 A predicate adjective or noun is placed immediately before the finite verb phrase.

This custom is popular with the young people.

i-gűa bekűm áða le̋uða vűűa:

4.4 Apposition – ȝővta

• 4.4.1 A substantive annexed to another substantive to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. This is called apposition. The noun thus used is called an appositive and is placed after the noun to which it is an appositive.

I, the prince, have given an order.

mu asűru e̋e̋vom e̋e̋va:

• 4.4.2 This structure is also used to translate the expressions "none other than" and "nothing else but", using neánu, no one else.

Walking up the steps was none other than my old school buddy.

renı̋ȝon ána ne̋ðantu neánu że̋e̋ru mu-túneepőőnu e-e̋sa:

• 4.4.3 A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where in English "as" or a like word would be used.

Horses are being offered to the sun god as a sacrifice.

mőres lı̋to suulȝuműs o lı̋taþes ı̋la:

• 4.4.4 The appositive of contents denotes a receptacle and that which it contains.

The child is carrying a basket of peaches.

ṡı̋ṡu k̬e̋som te̋fin ne̋xa:

4.5 Adjectives – feeþga̋nlos

4.5.1 Agreement of Adjectives – feeþganlőm ċőxa

• 4.5.1.1 Attributive adjectives agree with their substantives in class only. This applies to adjectives of whatever kind: determinate, non-determinate, or participles.

red box, re̋uðo ı̋vko; red boxes, re̋uðo ı̋vkos

red bird, re̋uðe m̃e̋ȝe; red birds, re̋uðe m̃e̋ȝes

red flower, re̋uði na̋ni; red flowers, re̋uði na̋nis

• 4.5.1.2 If, however, the attributive adjective is separated from its substantive by another phrase, it must then agree in class, case and number.

the white cows in the stable.

pa̋ȝes ƣomős éna m̃a̋kes

• 4.5.1.3 Because they are not preposed, predicate adjectives must agree with their substantives in class, case and number. They may be connected to their substantives by the copula or a copulative verb, becoming a part of the predicate or assertion made of the subject.

The doves are white.

pelőnves pa̋ȝes e̋sa:

• 4.5.1.4 An attributive adjective (süe̋e̋ðm̃o feeþga̋nlo) qualifying several substantives agrees with the nearest substantive in class and is understood with the rest.

the injured horse and rider.

ma̋te mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e

• 4.5.1.5 A predicate adjective (m̃a̋iþo feeþga̋nlo) qualifying several substantives agrees in class, number and case with the nearest substantive.

The horse and rider are injured.

mőrek̬e mı̋mluk̬e ma̋tu vűűa:

4.5.2 Adjectives as Nouns - feeþga̋nlos feeþőm góþa

• 4.5.2.1 An attributive adjective may be used as a noun. It is put in the class of the missing noun.

pőri, just; pőru, just man

vı̋ni, important; vı̋nos, important things

4.6 The Cases – ne̋udas

4.6.1 The Nominative Case - feeþne̋uda

• The nominative case (N) marks substantives that are used as the subject of a finite verb or in the predicate after copulative verbs.

m̃ı̋ru e-ǧe̋ma:, the man came.

nu m̃ı̋ru e̋sa:, He is a man.

%%====4.6.2 Genitive Case - ðeene̋uda====

• The primary function of the genitive case (G) is to state the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively. Other uses include the partitive idea or the idea of separation or source. A substantive in the genitive case may limit the meaning of another substantive, to express various relations, many of which are denoted by "of" or by the possessive case in English.
• 4.6.2.1 The Genitive Case with Nouns – feetőm súna ðeene̋uda
• The genitive that depends on a substantive is called attributive (še̋e̋ðm̃o).

The people of the valley fled.

leðős le̋uðu e-őőda:

• • 4.6.2.1.1 The stationary genitive is used to mark the objects of postpositions that do not indicate a change of position.

The wounded saiga stood under the fir tree.

m̃a̋a̋þe dı̋ƣe ðanı̋s néra e-ṡűra:

m̃a̋a̋-a-þe-	dı̋ƣ-e	ðan-ı̋s	néra	e=ṡűr-a
wound-IND-PP-ABS	saiga-N.s	fir.tree-G.s	under	PST=stand-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.2 The local genitive indicates the place at which something happens. It is used with the postposition éna.

The two armies clashed at the foot of the mountain.

d̮' őmus ǧarős tuufős éna e-tűűga:

d̬'	őm-us	ǧar-ős	tuuf-ős	éna	e=tűűg-a
two-ELIS	army-N.p	mountain-G.s	base-G.s	at	PST=clash-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.3 The temporal genitive indicates the time at which something happens. It does not require a postposition.

The caravan will set out at dawn.

sa̋a̋þo vaiƣa̋s éna u-vı̋da:

sa̋a̋þ-o	vaiƣ-a̋s	éna	u=vı̋d-a
caravan-N.s	dawn-G.s	at	FUT=leave-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.4 The possessive genitive indicates possession or some other close relationship.

taata̋s m̃e̋e̋so, the father’s house

m̃irűm leide̋e̋fto, the men’s team

• • 4.6.2.1.5 The subjective genitive indicates the subject of an action or feeling.

The love of the people (i.e., that the people have) for their king is great.

leuðűs m̃e̋na nu-reeƣűs o me̋ża vűűa:

leuð-űs	m̃e̋n-a	nu=reeƣ-űs	o	me̋ż-a	vűű-a
people-G.p	love-N.s	their=king-G.s	for	great-N.s	be-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.6 The objective genitive indicates the object of an action or feeling.

The murder of the prince saddened the people.

asurűs ka̋a̋da le̋uðum e-se̋uga:

asur-űs	ka̋a̋d-a	le̋uð-um	e-se̋ug-a
prince-G.s	murder-N.s	people-A.s	PST=sadden-IND

• • 4.6.2.1.7 The metrical genitive marks substantives which measure space, time or value.

tı̋r aha̋s ta̋ƣo, a three-day’s journey

bı̋n peda̋m őőni da̋ri, an eight-foot tall tree

d̬őfoos oȝe̋m mőre, a horse worth 40 sheep

• • 4.6.2.1.8 The partitive genitive indicates the whole about which parts are spoken.

zõðlűm m̃e̋umus, many of the farmers

• • 4.6.2.1.9 The numerical genitive is used with the nouns sa̋to, hundred; t̨űmo, thousand; and the higher numbers. They and their compounds are used with a genitive plural noun.

na̋a̋l na̋a̋m̃os, four ships

naam̃őm na̋a̋l sa̋tos, 400 ships

• 4.6.2.2 The Genitive Case with Verbs – kaatőm súna ðeene̋uda
  • 4.6.2.2.1 As the attributive genitive stands in the relation of an attributive adjective to its substantive, so an expression in the genitive case may stand in the relation of a predicate adjective to a verb. Verbs signifying "to be", "to become", and other copulative verbs may have a predicate genitive expressing any of the relations of the attributive possessive.

• • 4.6.2.2.2 The Possessive Genitive

This law is the prince's.

i-þőro asurűs e̋sa:

i=þőr-o	asur-űs	e̋s-a
this=law-N.s	prince-G.s	be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.3 The Metrical Genitive:

The six-foot high tower has crumbled.

sa̋a̋d peda̋m þőőro mïmı̋ı̋ka:

sa̋a̋d	ped-a̋m	þőőr-o	mï~mı̋ı̋k-a
six	foot-G.s	tower-N.s	PRF~crumble-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.4 Partitive Genitive:

My father was one of the hunted men.

mu-ta̋a̋ta veedaþűm þűn e-e̋sa:

mu=ta̋a̋t-a	veed-a-þ-űm	þűn	e=e̋s-a
my=father-N.s	hunt-IND-PP-G.p	one	PST=be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.5 Any verb may take a partitive genitive if its action affects the object only in part.

He sends the soldiers [i.e., all of them].

nu sőþlun mı̋þa:

n-u	sőþl-un	mı̋þ-a
3-N.s	soldier-A.p	send-IND

He sends some of the soldiers.

nu soþlűmĕ mı̋þa:

n-u	soþl-űm-ĕ	mı̋þ-a
3-N.s	soldier-G.p-EP	send-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.6 The verbs ge̋ma, seize; da̋ba, pull; zı̋da, drag; and ne̋e̋ȝa, lead, may have a direct object accusative with a genitive of the part seized, pulled, etc., the genitive coming before the direct object accusative.

The lion had seized him by the leg.

bı̋ı̋re lakős þum e-gïge̋ma:

bı̋r-e	lak-ős	þ-um	e-gï~ge̋m-a
lion-N.s	leg-G.s	4-A.s	PST=PRF~seize-IND

The two priestesses will lead the heifer by the horns.

d̬ő tove̋rus kidőm kase̋rem u-ne̋e̋ȝa:

d̬ő	tove̋r-us	kid-őm	kase̋r-em	u=ne̋e̋ȝ-a
two	priestess-N.p	horn-G.s	heifer-A.s	FUT=lead-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.7 The verbs a̋a̋m̃a, hear; tűna, learn; pe̋ua, seek; and ı̋ga, request, may take an accusative of the thing heard, etc., and a genitive of the person from whom it was heard, learned, etc.

The people sought a ruling from the prince.

le̋uðu asurűs re̋kam e-pe̋ua:

le̋uð-u	asur-űs	re̋k-am	e=pe̋u-a
people-N.s	prince-G.s	ruling-A.s	PST=seek-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.8 The verbs pe̋e̋la, fill; þı̋a, stuff; and sa̋a̋a, sate; take the accusative of the thing filled and the genitive of the contents.

The harvesters filled the baskets with grain.

kőilus etenős k̬e̋e̋son e-pe̋e̋la:

kőil-us	eten-ős	k̬e̋e̋s-on	e=pe̋e̋l-a
harvester-N.p	grain-G.s	basket-A.p	PST=fill-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.9 The verbs pa̋usa, release; še̋va, free; őȝa, remove; de̋usa, cease; műta, deprive; ka̋da, rob; and vőőura, steal, take the accusative of the thing or person released and the genitive of the thing released from.

The soldiers released the prisoners from their chains.

sőþlus þúm bukőm kőlaþun e-pa̋a̋usa:

sőþl-us	þ-úm	buk-őm	kől-a-þ-un	e=pa̋us-a
soldier-N.s	4-G.p	chain-G.p	imprison-IND-PP-A.p	PST=releave-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.10 Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn, take a genitive of the crime and a accusative of the person.

The woman accused him of murder.

ǧe̋nu kaada̋s þum e-ka̋ṡa:

ǧ e̋n-u	kaad-a̋s	þ-um	e=ka̋ṡ-a
woman-N.s	murder-G.s	4-A.s	PST=accuse-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.11 The objective genitive follows many adjectives derived from the verbs in paragraphs 4.6.2.2.8 and 4.6.2.2.9.

The basket was full of grain.

k̬e̋e̋so etenős pe̋e̋lo e-vűűa:

k̬e̋e̋s-o	eten-ős	pe̋e̋lo-	e=vűű-a
basket-N.s	grain-G.s	full-N.s	PST=be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.12 Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and equative degrees take the separative genitive with the postposition sóma.

The cheetah runs faster than the ostrich.

nı̋be talresle̋ sóma óósvi re̋e̋sa:

nı̋b-e	talresl-e̋-'	sóma	o~ós-vi	re̋e̋s-a
cheetah-N.s	ostrich-G.s-ELIS	than	COMP~fast-ADV	run-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.13 The indirect object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the genitive with the postposition o.

Give this book to the student.

tunűs o i-lűvom dőőe:

tun-űs	o	i=lűv-om	dőő-e
student-G.s	to	this=book-A.s	give-IMP

• • 4.6.2.2.14 The person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage anything is or is done, is put in the genitive with the postpositio éra.

Every good father labors for his children.

vı̋su va̋a̋du ta̋a̋ta nu-żoonaþűm éra da̋a̋ra:

vı̋su	va̋a̋du	ta̋a̋t-a	nu=żoonaþ-űm	éra	da̋a̋r-a
every	good	father-N.s	his=child-G.p	for	work-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.15 Alienable possession, i.e., possession of tangible things which one might somehow cease to own or possess, is expressed with the verb űda, possess.

I have (own, possess) three cows.

mu tı̋r m̃a̋ken űda:

m-u	tı̋r	m̃a̋k-en	űd-a
1-N.s	three	cow-A.p	own-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.16 Inalienable possession, i.e., possession of those things which cannot exist apart from a possessor, e.g., body parts or kin, is expressed by making that which is possessed the subject of the sentence and the possessor the indirect object with the permanent existential verb e̋sa.

I have blue eyes.

kőőxo t̬a̋los mús o e̋sa:

kőőxo	t̬a̋l-os	m-ús	o	e̋s-a
blue	eye-N.p	1s-G	to	be-IND

• • 4.6.2.2.17 A special case of alienable possession exists when the object possessed is not one’s own or has been acquired illegally by using the temporary existential verb vűa.

I have three cows (which I have stolen or which belong to my neighbor).

tı̋r m̃a̋kes mús o vűűa:

tı̋r	m̃a̋k-es	m-ús	o	vűű-a
three	cow-N.p	1-G.s	to	be-IND

I have your book.

tu-lűvo mús o vűűa:

tu=lűv-o	m-ús	o	vűű-a
your=book-N.s	1-G.s	to	be-IND

4.6.3 The Accusative Case – ȝaane̋uda

• 4.6.3.1 The primary use of the accusative case (A) is to state a change in the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.
• 4.6.3.2 The accusative case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that indicate a change of position.

The children ran out of the house.

ṡı̋vus m̃e̋e̋som éha e-re̋e̋sa:

ṡı̋ṡ-us	m̃e̋e̋s-om	éha	e=re̋e̋s-a
child-N.p	house-A.s	out.of	PST=run-IND

• 4.6.3.3 The accusative case marks the direct object of the action of a transitive verb.

We do these things.

m̃u' son kı̋a:

m̃-u-'	s-on	kı̋-a
3-N.s-ELIS	this-A.p	do-IND

• 4.6.3.4 Any transitive verb whose meaning permits takes an object of kindred signification. This object repeats the meaning already contained in the verb. An example in English is "to sing a song." Some English verbs that this construction will replace would be "make, have, get" and "hold."

The seamstress took three stitches in the small tear.

s̨uulu lűűdo renðős éna tı̋r s̨űűon e-s̨űűa:

s̨uul-u	lűűdo	renð-ős	éna	tı̋r	s̨űű-on	e=s̨űű-a
seamstress-N.s	small	tear-G.s	in	three	stitch-A.p	PST=stitch-IND

• 4.6.3.5 The accusative case marks, with verbs of motion, the particular ground over which the motion passes.

The children crossed the bridge.

ṡı̋ṡus þőlom e-ta̋ra:

ṡı̋ṡ-us	þől-om	e=ta̋r-a
child-N.p	bridge-A.s	PST=cross-IND

• 4.6.3.6 The accusative case marks substantives used as adverbial expressions of extent of time or space.

The house burned for two days.

m̃e̋e̋so d̬ő a̋han e-a̋iða:

m̃e̋e̋s-o	d̬ő	a̋h-an	e=a̋ið-a
house-N.s	two	day-A.p	PST=burn-IND

• 4.6.3.7 Verbs signifying to name, to choose, to appoint, to make, to think, take an object and its appositive in the accusative case.

The prince appointed him general.

asűru þum soþve̋e̋l̤um e-fe̋e̋ta:

asűr-u	n-um	soþve̋e̋l̤-um	e=fe̋e̋t-a
prince-N.s	3-A.s	general-A.s	PST=appoint-IND

4.6.4 The Vocative Case – ham̃ne̋uda

• 4.6.4.1 The vocative case (V), accompanied, or not, by the vocative particle o, is used to mark direct address. The primary pitch shifts to the ultimate syllable.

General, your orders have been carried out.

o soþveel̤ű. tu-e̋e̋vos þűkaþos ı̋ı̋la:

o	soþveel̤-ű	tu=e̋e̋v-os	þűk-a-þ-os	i~ı̋l-a
V	general-V.s	your=command-N.p	carry.out-IND-PP-N.p	PRF~become-IND

4.7 Postpositions – pos̈a̋m̃os

• There is a list of Senjecan postpositions in Appendix B.
• 4.7.1 Postpositions are independent words that connect words in a sentence with other parts of the sentence. With two exceptions, these words end in -a. These connecting words are placed after the nouns they govern. Depending on what is connected, the objects of postpositions are in either the accusative or the genitive case. If the postposition indicates a change in position, literally or figuratively, the object of the postposition is in the accusative case. If the postposition does not indicate a change in position, the object of the postposition is in the genitive case.

The thirsty cattle headed toward the river.

a̋a̋de ǧőum̃es da̋a̋em do e-a̋ta:

a̋a̋de	ǧőum̃-es	da̋a̋-em	do	e=a̋t-a
thirsty	cow-N.p	river-A.s	to	PST=go-IND

The cattle at the river were sated.

daae̋s éna ǧőum̃e' sa̋tes e-vűűa:

daa-e̋s	éna	ǧőum̃-e-'	sa̋t-es	e=vűű-a
river-G.s	in	cow-N.p-ELIS	sated-N.p	PST=be-IND

• 4.7.2 The construction consisting of an intransitive verb plus a prepositional phrase, e.g., "he went with his friends," is not used as frequently in Senjecas as it is in many modern languages. The idea is expressed by a transitive verb and its direct object, e.g., "he accompanied his friends."

4.8 Verbs – ka̋a̋tos

4.8.1 Voice - ȝe̋þra

• Voice indicates the relation of the verbal action to the subject.
• 4.8.1.1 In the active voice (kiȝe̋þra) the subject is represented as acting. The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive. There are no deponent verbs.

I close my eyes.

mu-t̬a̋lon pa̋xa:

mu=t̬a̋l-on	pa̋x-a
my=eye-A.p	close-IND

4.8.2 Tense - te̋na

• Tense designates the time of an action as present, past or future. These tenses designate habitual action. The unmarked verb is in the present tense.

For the past tense, the prefix e- is affixed to the verb.

For the future tense, the prefix u- is affixed to the verb.

4.8.3 Aspect - nőőa

• Aspect defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in a given action, event, or state, from the point of view of the speaker. Aspects are coupled with the tenses to indicate the time and the character of an action. These indications are as follows:
• 4.8.3.1 The perfective aspect (þuxnőőa) designates that an action is complete; the imperfective aspect (álþuxnőőa) designates that an action is incomplete.

The present imperfective (imte̋na) describes customary or repeated action going on in present time: I eat.

The past imperfective (feste̋na) describes customary or repeated action that went on in past time: I ate.

The future imperfective (poste̋na) describes customary or repeated action that will take place in future time: I will eat.

The present perfective (ímþuxte̋na) describes action begun in the past and completed by or continuing in the present time: I have eaten.

The past perfective (fésþuxte̋na) describes action begun in the past and completed in the past: I had eaten.

The future perfective (pósþuxte̋na) describes action that will begin in the future and be completed in or continue into the future: I will have eaten.

• 4.8.3.2 Other aspects are created with suffixes.
  • 4.8.3.2.1 The suffix -ı̋m- is added to the verb root to form the progressive (PRG) and continuous aspects (imnőőa) which are used to emphasize that the action is occurring at the time in question.

Run for your life!

(tú) ǧı̋ı̋ram éra re̋e̋se:

t-ú	ǧı̋ı̋r-am	éra	re̋e̋s-e
2-V.s	life-A.s	for	run-IMP

I am running.

reesı̋ma:

rees-ı̋m-a
run-PRG-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.2

The suffix -a̋v- is added to the verb root to form the prospective aspect (PRO) (avnőőa): "about to, going to."

She is about to fall.

su foola̋v-a:

s-u	fool-a̋v-a
3p-N.s	fall-SUP	about.to	be-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.3 The suffix -ǫ̋m- is added to the verb root to form the habitual (HAB) aspect (šéðnőőa): "used to, would."

I used to walk home from school.

mu nómþim tundémþis neðǫ̋ma:

m-u	nóm-þim	tundém-þis	neð-õ̋m-a
1-N.s	school-LAT	school-ABL	walk-HAB-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.4 The suffix -e̋l- is added to the verb root to form the frequentative (FRQ) aspect (seernőőa): "keep on, continue."

The baby kept on crying/cried and cried/continued to cry.

ba̋a̋lu e-ɫiige̋la:

ba̋a̋l-u	e=ɫiig-e̋l-a
baby-N.s	PST=cry-FRQ-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.5 The suffix -űṡ- is added to the verb root to form the terminative (TRM) aspect (deusnőőa): "stop."

She stopped smoking yesterday.

su hesáhvi muuxűṡa:

s-u	hes-áh-vi	muux-űṡ-a
3p-N.s	yester-day-ADV	smoke-TRM-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.6 The suffix -űȝ- is added to the verb root to form the causative (CAUS) aspect (f̨uuðnőőa): "make, have"

I will make him laugh.

mu sum u-inűȝa:

m-u	s-um	u=in-űȝ-a
1s-N	3p.A.s	FUT=laugh-CAUS-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.5 The suffix -űṡ- is added to the verb root to form the terminative (TRM) aspect (deusnőőa): "stop."

She stopped smoking yesterday.

su hesáhvi e-muuxűṡa:

s-u	hes-áh-vi	muux-űṡ-a
3p-N.s	yester-day-ADV	smoke-TRM-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.6 The suffix -űȝ- is added to the verb root to form the causative (CAUS) aspect (f̨uuðnőőa): "make, have"

I will make him laugh.

mu sum u-inűȝa:

m-u	s-um	u=in-űȝ-a
1s-N	3p.A.s	FUT=laugh-CAUS-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.7 The suffix –um- added to the verb root is used to form the recent perfect (RPR) aspect (nevnőőa): "have just..."

The mayor (has) just died.

riine̋e̋ȝu neṡűma:

riine̋e̋il-u	neṡ-űm-a
mayor-N.s	die-RPR-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.8 The suffix –as- added to the verb root is used to form the inchoative (INC) aspect (toðnőőa): "begin to..."

The choir began to sing.

ga̋a̋ilus e-gaȝa̋sa:

ga̋a̋il-us	e-gaȝ-a̋s-a
choir-N.p	PST=sing-INCEP-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.9 The suffix –iih- is added to the verb root to form the desiderative (DES) aspect (m̃esnőőa): “want to...”

The girl wants to sing.

ƥa̋þu gaȝı̋ı̋ha:

ƥa̋þ-u	gaȝ-ı̋ı̋h-a
girl-N.s	sing-DES-IND

• 4.8.3.3 Two aspects are created with auxiliary verbs and the supine.
  • 4.8.3.2.10 The verb ke̋la, have to, must, is used to form the obligative aspect (kelnőőa): "have to..."

I have to go now.

mu ímu a̋tu ke̋la:

m-u	ímu	a̋t-u	ke̋l-a
1s-N	now	go-SUP	must-IND

• • 4.8.3.2.11 The verb vűűma, ought, is used to form the debitive aspect (vuumnőőa): “ought to...”

I ought to go now too.

mu ímu étu a̋tu vűűma:

m-u	ímu	étu	a̋t-u	vűűm-a
1s-N	now	too	go-SUP	ought-IND

4.8.4 Mood - ðe̋ra

• Mood indicates the attitude of the speaker toward what he is saying. There are three moods in Senjecas.
  • 4.8.4.1 The indicative mood (m̃eerðe̋ra) is marked by –a and is used in simple assertions or negations and in questions or exclamations which include or concern such assertions, e.g., nu m̃e̋na, he loves; nu m̃ĭm̃e̋na, he has loved; tu xum m̃e̋na, whom do you love? The negating particle is ne and is postverbal, e.g., nu m̃e̋na ne, he does not love.
  • 4.8.4.2 The imperative mood (eevðe̋ra) is marked by -e and is used to express commands and prohibitions, exhortations and entreaties. The negating particle is mee.
  • 4.8.4.3 The suffix -e̋ȝa is added to the verb root to form the subjunctive mood (nuvðe̋ra) which is used in statements of uncertainty and in those contrary-to-fact. The negating particle is mee. It is used in some subordinate clauses.