Languages of Teppala: Difference between revisions

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Humans on the planet Teppala are confined to a single continent, Rilola, and its offshore islands. Thus all human languages can be traced back to a single starting point, and have many traits in common.

Historical distribution of Teppalan languages

Human civilization on planet Teppala peaked twice: first around 1700-2600AD, and then again around 3500-4200AD. After the second peak, human civilization entered a long decline, the population decreased, and languages with small populations went extinct.

During the peaks of human civilization, it was common for every religion to have its own language. Since religions were tied to political parties, almost every political party also had its own language. This is why many Teppalan languages have unusual names, such as the Gold language and the Moonshine language; these were named after political parties rather than ethnic groups.

Since political parties (and religions) coexisted with rival parties within the same ethnic group's nation, the boundaries of a given language often hinged on tiny differences such as speech registers or a set of unique vocabulary words used only members of a particular political party. When languages such as this coexisted, they tended to evolve in parallel directions, so that mutual intelligibility might persist among a pair of languages for hundreds of years.

Traits common to all Teppalan languages

Traits common to all of the languages on the entire planet throughout all of recorded history are confined to negatives.

For example, no Teppalan language has or has ever had a definite or indefinite article.

Traits common to most Teppalan languages

Phonology

Very few Teppalan languages have at any time in history ever gone beyond six vowels, and when there are six vowels, it is always /a e i o u ə/, where the /ə/ vowel may have considerable allophony.
Dense consonant clusters do not appear, except in some languages where a certain vowel, usually /a/ or /ə/, is not distinguished at the phonemic level from silence. That is, some languages may always pronounce /tk/ as [tək], without the schwa actually being present as a phoneme.
Open syllables are preferred, and syllables are commonly front-loaded, such that a sequence like /papsa/ is more likely to be pronounced [pa.psa] rather than *[pap.sa].
On the continent of Rilola, the voiced velar stop /ġ/ (IPA /g/) is rarely used even in languages with a robust series of voiced stops. This is a long-standing trait and crosses language family boundaries. On the islands of Laba, however, /ġ/ is common.
There are no minimal pairs between a diphthong and a sequence of the same two vowels. Thus diphthongs can be analyzed as allophones of vowel sequences.
Voiceless obstruents occur more frequently than voiced ones. In some languages, /b/ is the only voiced stop.
There are often marginal consonant phonemes. These mostly arise from previously existing consonant clusters that were worn down. However, some marginal phonemes arise from sound changes affecting consonants that previously were more common, which survived in only a few phonemic environments. For example, in Khulls voiced stops survived a lenition shift only after a nasal. Later, the nasal sometimes disappeared, meaning that the voiced stops could no longer be analyzed as allophones of voiced fricatives. But they remained rare.
It is common to have restrictions forbidding certain consonants to appear in certain parts of a word; for example, in Khulls /r/ cannot begin a word. Most languages allow only a small subset of their consonants to appear at the end of a word

Grammar

Polysynthesis is common, and it is nearly always fusional. It is common to find words with more morphemes than phonemes due to the prevalence of single-phoneme grammatical suffixes that represent two individual morphemes that at an earlier stage of the language were pronounced individually but combined into a new single sound after a sound change.

Gender

If there is any grammatical gender, feminine words in most semantic fields outnumber masculine ones.
Grammatical gender, if present, classifies people based on age and sex rather than just sex. The age categories are not firmly defined and can be used metaphorically. There are often several age categories for children, but all adults share just a single age category.
Many languages have a consonant-based gender system; if not grammaticalized, associated more weakly due to persistence of previously grammaticalized morphemes and contact with nearby languages.
Mixed gender categories are often present; a man and a woman, referred to as a unit, will take an epicene gender rather than having one gender overrule the other. If there is no epicene, a group containing both males and females will be described with words in one of the feminine genders.
Gender and animacy, if present, can be inherited by nouns describing syntactically inanimate objects, by borrowing from a parent object. That is, a man's arm will be animate (and masculine), and so will his books or any other possessions.

Structure of words

Most languages have a fixed word order, with SOV word order by far the most common. Anomalous constructions within SOV languages may require additional marking on certain words, usually those found near the beginning of the sentence.
Suffixes are nearly universal; infixes are common; prefixes are rare and usually confined to a single part of speech (for example, in Andanese, the only prefixes are the noun classifiers).
Verbs are generally the longest words in a sentence. Verbs are heavily inflected even in languages where noun inflection is absent or relatively skimpy.

Parts of speech

There are no adjectives or adverbs. Verbs are used instead of these. In some languages, even the nouns can be analyzed as a subset of the verbs.
Pronouns play only a minor role in the language, and some languages lack pronouns altogether, instead using nouns and verbs with person markers.
Person markers on nouns, denoting their possessor, are common. Languages that lose this system often redevelop it from grammatically unrelated words later on.

List of sound changes

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SOUND CHANGES

Mapi (14000 BC) to SE Laban (year8000 BC)

The Mapi language started out with 11 consonants: /p m t n s l r k ŋ x h/, and 4 vowels: /a i u ə/. The /ə/, however, was not fully independent from /i/. Syllables could either be open (the vast majority) or end in /n/. The /n/ bundles with consonants to make prenasalized stops, but can also occur at the end of a word or before a vowel. There are also [e] and [o], diphrhongs which are often pronounced as monophthongs but are not included as regular vowels because they cannot occur before the syllable-final /n/.

/e/ > /je/ and /o/ > /wo/ unless the opposite glide is present already. MAYBHE NOIT!!!!! taipa Note that effectively /i/ was /ji/ and /u/ was /wu/ unconditionally.
Velar consonants become palatalized before /i/ (whetther as a vowerl or a palatal glide). Thus k ŋ x to ć ń ś.
Labial consonants defgy palatalization, and return to normal. Thus effectively labial consonants turned a foloowing /i/ into /ə/.
Alveolar consonants become palatalized before /i/ (whetther as a vowerl or a palatal glide). Thus t n s l r to č ñ š ł ř.
Prenasalized stops become true plain voiced stops: mp nt nč nć ŋk to b d ǯ ǵ ġ. ǵ can be spelled gʲ.
The alveolar approximant l dentalized to ḷ. (was later)
The voiced affricates ǯ ǵ become j unconditionallyu. (spelled /y/).
The voiced stop d became l (alveolar).
Labial consonants sucked up the vowel /ə/ after them, whether it was a glide or a full vweol. Thus consonant clusters like /pk/ were suddenly created.
The glottal fricatve h disappeared unconditionally.
Word-final primordial /n/ becaomes /ŋ/. If before a vowel it turns into /ń/ if before /i/ (or /j/), else also /ŋ/.MAYBE LATER!!!!
The vowel /ə/ disappeared in most positions. MAYBE LATER!!!!
Word-final voiced stops became nasals.MAYBE LATER!!!!
The sequences ai əi becomes e, and au əu become o. This is a true /e/, not /je/. This /ai/ is always from a deleted consonant, ~~because the original /ai/ had already changed to /je/.~~
The palatal consonants ć ś ń became the dentals ṭ ṣ ṇ unconditiojnallly!!!!!!
The vowel /e/ becomes /i/ in all posiotions, thus creating nonpal consonants before /i/. Thus /si/ is always from /sampi/ etc.
The vowel /o/ became /a/ in all positions.
Schwa was deleted.
Labial consonants weaken interovcallicaly: /p/ becomes /f/, /b/ becomes /w/.
The postaolveolar ř becomes retoflex, but spelling stays the same.
Postalveolar consonants (except /ř/) trapped in final psotions become plauin alveolars: č š ñ ł become t s n l. Note that there were no longer any palatals in the language.
The labial approximant /w/ disappeared unconditionally. Thus contuinuing /w/ is always from /u/ plus a hiatus. (This was actually /uw/ anyway; othgerwise even the original /u/ would have collapsed. Thus /w/ is almost always from /ump/. )
Alveolar consonants before /j/ become postalveolars. Thus t n s r (there was no plain /l/) become č ñ š ř.
Dental consonants before /j/ become pstalveolars agaub. Thus ṭ ṇ ṣ ḷ to č ñ š ł.
Postavleolars become tretroflex???

SE Laban (c. 8000 BC) to POP3 (year 3770 BC)

The dental consonants ṭ ṇ ṣ ḷ became the labiodentals f v f v (fricatives, not stops), although they had stops as allophones in some positions.
True bilabials p m f became rounded bilabials pʷ mʷ fʷ.
The clusters pʷf mʷf became pfʷ mfʷ (rounded on both). Later this was seen as just pʷ mhʷ.
Syllable-final uŋ became um.
The alveolar consonants t n s l became the dentals ṣ ẓ ṣ ḷ, and as above the fricatives could be stops in some positions.
The bilabial approximant w became ġʷ. Note that there was as yet no corresponding plain ġ.
The retroflex/postalveolar consonants t` n` s` l` r` all became plain alveolars t n s l r unconditionally. R>w?
The velar consonants k ŋ h became the palatals č ñ š except before the back vowel /u/.
The rounded bilabial fricative fʷ came to be pronounced as hʷ.
~~The vowel a next to a dental became ä ("ae" as in Peyack).~~
The schwa vowel ə became e when NOT adjacent to a dental.
The low vowel a became ä when NOT adjacent to a dental. ("ae" as in Peyack).
The voiced fricatives v ẓ became stops b d unconditionally.
The dental fricative ṣ became a harsh-voiced ś in all positions.
Dentals in syllable-final position became alveolar unless before another dental consonant.
The voiced stop ġʷ became bʷ before a rounded vowel.
The vowel u became ə (a schwa) unconditionally. Often spelled "e".
The vowel ə disappeared in initial position, creating glottalized nasals.
The vowel a became â (a-ring) adjacent to a rounded consonant in either direction.
The vowels ə e both became o adjacent to a rounded consonant in either condition.
Labialization was lost on all consonants: pʷ bʷ mʷ hʷ ġʷ became p b m h ġ.
The velars h ġ became š ǯ before a front vowel. (Looks like the other Tapiulula).
The velars h ġ disappeared.
The harsh-voiced ś became h except at the end of a syllable where it bcame s.
The voiced sounds b d ǯ became the voiceless sounds p t č.

SE Laban (c. 8000 BC) to Pre-Proto-Tapilula (year 3770 BC)

č > š (retroflex, not postalveolar)
(pre-Silatibarra changes: t`a > t`e > te, etc)
retroflex r` changed to g (a fricatve) before a vowel.
retroflex r` disappears, changing to a schwa vowel e if after a vowel.
Geminate nasals mm ṇṇ nn n`n` ŋŋ became nasal + stop: mb ṇḍ nd n`d` ŋġ.
Voiceless stop + nasal became a simple voiced stop: pm ṭṇ tn t`n` kŋ into b ḍ d d` ġ.
Word-initial ř became d. Word-initial w became b.
Adjacent to a retroflex consonant, in either direction, the vowel a changed into e ( a schwa).
The voiceless stops p t k between vowels became b d ġ. TIME?????
The voiceless fricatives have merged out by thuis time.
The sequence gi before a vowel became ž (even if accented, due to analogy).
Does /s/ survive as /h/ ? Or is it only double fricatives that survive?
i....u > i...e; u...i > u....e .
Final schwa was deleted.
A few sequences, like abi> au, occcuirred here. (only if the /a/ was stressed).
Voiced fricatives before a vowel were smeared out: v changed all preceding vowels into /u/; ž changed only /e/ > /i/; g disappeared with no effect on the preceding vowel.
Gemionates weree simplified. Thus voiceless interovolcalic stops were created.

Pre-Tapilula (3770 BC) to Tapilula ( year 500 )

The original dialect of Pre-Tapilula (so called because it had no other descendants), spoken around 3770 BC, had 18 consonants ( p b m w ṭ ḍ ṇ ḷ t d n l r j k ġ ŋ h ) and 4 vowels, a i u ə (schwa is spelled {y}). Most roots had 2 syllables, with fairly free phonotactis. But the i..u and u..i patterns so common in hte language's descendants were rare, essentially always being from compounds.

Nasals could be syllabic both after consonants and after other vowels. The apostrophe is a dipthong separator which was considered by the language to be a consonant. No tones. Vowel sequences were common, in many ways resembling Bābākiam except for the lack of contrasts between long vowels and double

vowels. Thus ā = aa, etc.

(pre-Silatibarra changes: t`a > t`e > te, etc)
Note that far back in the past, nn > nd, hence explaining why there is no /nn/. Also tn > d. In a few compounds these rulse still apply by analogy.
Word-initial ř became d ??
Before a vowel, the sequences ei eu (pronounced /əj əw/) changed into i u.
The vowel e became u before a labial in a closed syllable.
Note a previous sound change around 5000 BC had occurred which removed all fricatives other than /h/. This had involved the change of neutral fricatives (possibly /g h/) into labials before /u/ and palatals before /i/. Thus, for example, while /v/ could occur before any vowel, it was commonest before /u/, and /ž/ was commonest before /i/. Later, though, these fricatives died out, changing the vowels before them also into /i/ and /u/. Thus double-vowel sequences of /ii/ and /uu/ were common. These here pulled up into /ji/ and /wu/ sequences. (/v/ pulled up all; /ž/ perhaps only /ə/.)
Palatalized alveolars change: /tʲ dʲ nʲ lʲ rʲ/ into /š ž ñ ź ź/. Note that this did not affect dentals.
Paltalized velars change: /kʲ ġʲ ŋʲ hʲ/ into /š ž ñ š/.
The patalaized dental stop ḍʲ cxhanged into ž. This did not affect the voiceless form. Paltalized ṇʲ also > ñ.
The sequences iŋ eŋ uŋ, in syllable-final position, became lowered (allophonically at first) to ëŋ aŋ oŋ. This /ë/ is the true /e/, not a schwa.
Syllable-final stops (p ṭ t k) changed into ʔ, which itself was generally siulent except for changing the tone of the syllable to hihgh.
The sequences /wi/ and /ju/, before another a vowel, became /w/. (when???)
Syllable-initial clusters such as bl pl changed into pharyngealized consonants such as bʕ pʕ.
Syllable final /ŋ/ changed into a nasalaized vowel. Howeverr syllabic /ŋ̇/ after a voerl rtemains.
DEPALATALIZATION!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! /j/ was changed to /ʕ/ in all positions. This includes depalatalization of palatalized consonants, although for the meantime, this resulted in pharyngealized consonants such as /pʕ bʕ ṭʕ/ rather than plai nones.
....Between vowels, /ʕ/ soon became /'/, a silent diphthong separator. The actual new consonants created were /pʕ bʕ mʕ ṭʕ ṇʕ/, as the others had already changed into fricatives.
........ /ʕ/ disappeared after a fricative.
The phrayngealized stops /pʕ bʕ mʕ ṭʕ ṇʕ/ remained for the time being.
Importantly, the apalatal nasal /ñ/ changed to /ŋ/, not a simple alveolar.
sometimes there wad a ʕ, e.g. pj > pʕ, which stopped aspiration later.
....... š > s
....... ž ź > j (a new /j/ unaffected by othger chabnges)
Palatalized labials stay labial, unaffected by this change even in vowel.
The vowel sequences ae ea changed to au ua. ei became ui (/wi/).
An h after an accented vowel metathesized and created an aspirated consonant at the beginning of the word, and leaving a gap in between the other two vowels. Note that voiceless stops were always aspirated, so this shift did not change them.
/h/ was removed in all positions (?), only to reappear later.
The sequene /ua/ changed to /wo/, at least after a consonant.
An ʔ before an accented vowel disappeared, unless the previous syllable began with a voiceless stop, in which case it created a glottalized stop there.
The vowel sequences ai au changed to e o unconditionally.
A schwa in an unaccented syllable after an accented /e/ or /o/ changed to match that vowel.
Some double schwa words also changed, e.g. mehe > moho "fire".
All voiceless stops except the glottalized ones became aspirated.
Labialized velars became rounded labials. e.g. /kw/ > /pw/, etc. ~~BUT THEN HOW DOES ḍw > b??? THIS SHOULD BE EARLIER!@!!~~
Labialized dentals became rounded labials. e.g. /ṭw/ > /pw/.
Naslaized vowerls caused the stops oreceing them to become deaspirated. THis afffects /m/ as well.
Aspirated voiced stops became voiceless fricatives. Plain voiced stops became voiced fricatives. THere may also be some phar tones that make these voiced.
All voiced fricatives merged as g (pronounced /ɣ/). Possibly sometimes /l/ for clusters.
All voiceless fricatives merged as h.
Aspiration disappeared on approximants, except for wʰ which became fʷ.
THere may also be some phar tones that make these voiced.
The alveolar flap r became the palatal approximant j in all positions.
If final syllable had a high tone, the penultimate syllable (which was the accented one) became low tone. This is the source of almost all low tones in accented syllables. However, a few LOW+LOW words did exist. On the other hand, HIGH+HIGH did not exist, even if two syllables in a row had ended with stops, because this rule would automatically change that pattern into LOW+HIGH.
Other final nasals also change into nasal vowel markers, thus changing syllable weight.
The labial nasal m became mʰ before a labial? (essentially a preview of Andanese). This did not affect /mʕ/.
The glottalized stops pʕ ṭʕ kʕ changed to b ḍ ḳ unconditionally.
~~The voiceless stops p t became b d in all positions unless another voiceless consonant was adjacent (even if over a vowel).~~
Rounded labials became plain. Thus the language now had an abundance of labial consonants, especially stops, from the collision of most consonants followed by /w/. Labialized alveolar consonants still remained, however, as did the /hʷ/ that was distinct from the /f/.
All dental consontants became alveolar.

Thus Tapilula had the consonants p b m f t d n l tʷ dʷ nʷ k h g hʷ j w and the vowels a e i o u y. All syllables were open and all consonants could occur in all positions. There was a variable stress accent. (Five vowels, really.)

Tapilula to Ukieipi (year 1900)

Tapilula inherited from Standard Animal the phonology p b m f fʷ w t d n s l j k ŋ ɣ h q ʔ a i u, where ʔ represents a glottal stop. All syllables were open and all consonants could occur in all positions. There was a variable stress accent distinguishing three tones (à ā á) on the stressed syllable, although phonemically there were really only two tones, high and low, on both syllables: the three-tone system was brought up in sandhi only. For initial stress the pattern is: Low-Low = Low / High-Low = High / Low-High = Med / and for final stress ther pattern is: Low-Low = Low / High-Low = Med / Low-High = High / High-High = High ~~(that is, it was the same.) ???Med was originally "falling" , High "rising".~~ CHANGED JUN 22 2012

The aspirated velar stop kʰ became tš before the vowel i. If another vowel followed, the /i/ disappeared. This happened even if the /i/ was accented ... e.g. takʰìa > tačă.
The voiced stops b d became v ð in all positions (not labialized).
The uvular stop q became k (not aspirated) in all positions. (Still distinguished in spelling because it patterned as a "high" consonant, unlike the low {k}.
In word-initial position before another vowel and medially between two other vowels, the bare vowels i u changed to j w.
The voiced fricative v changed to ð in all positions. f (not labialized) changed to ṣ (/þ/).
When a "velar" consonant (k ŋ h ɣ l) followed an accented high tone vowel and the following vowel was the same, that following vowel disappeared, leaving a closed syllable. (Initial-stress "diphthongs" metathesized; e.g. ūhi became ūih and āku became āuk.) If the next syllable had begun with a vowel, a ʡ (voiced pharyngeal fricative) was added there. These new syllables were all high tone, and were the only closed syllables in the language. Thus the high tone came to be associated with closed syllables. "l" had been considered a velar consonant because of certain distribution patterns dating from Standard Animal, even though it was not a velarized l.
The sequence hk became kʰ.
The diphthongs ùu and ìi changed to əu and əi respectively.
The diphthongs ùi and ìu changed to ə unless another vowel followed.
~~The diphthongs àa èa ìa òa ùa became ā ē ī ō ū.~~
Word-final glottal stops were deleted, leaving only their influence on tone.
The fricative ðʰ, which had arisen from the sequences ðh and hð, changed to ṣ. Thus fʷuhði "mountain" became fʷuṣi.
The fricative ṣ (/þ/) changed to s. Thus broadly speaking the old voiced aspirates /bh dh/ as well as the old fricatives /f ṣ/ had now all collided as /s/. Nevertheless, plain /ð/ still remained dental, thus the sound combination /ðh/ reappeared almost immediately in new compounds where the memory of the previous sound change had been lost.
The new fricative ðʰ, which had re-appeared from the sequences ðh and hð, changed to ṣ. This sound change happened so soon after the last that it seemed merely that the previous sound change had had many exceptions.
Any remaining ð at the start of a word or after a consonant was changed to a hard d, thus creating yet another new /dʰ/, which soon changed to /tʰ/ in most branches except in words where it remained transparent as a compound of a word ending in -h (for -s) and one beginning in d-.
Accented syllables gained a pharyngeal ʕ as an onset if a consonant was not already there. ~~If the syllable began with a glottal stop, it changed to ʢ.~~ If there was an /x/ (resulting from syllable-final /h/), it became ĥ (a "true" /h/, not like {h} which really is /x/). Thus, all long vowels now had their stress on the first vowel and thus had a falling tone, and the glottal stop could not begin an accented syllable. Additionally, the consonants w j changed to ʕʷ ʕʲ, which were soon strengthened to gʷ gʲ in some situations (those are fricatives).
After long vowels, all consonants became voiced. Also, consonants occurring after initial vowels also became voiced. This created the new consonants b v vʷ d z ġ dž (the glottal stop disappeared). Thus, final -s in words like hʷīs became -z. However, analogy made it so that the change was confined to open syllables in most words.
A taboo on velar consonants before vowels developed from an earlier collision of certain sounds in some words: in polite or deferential speech, the velar consonants k ġ h g l had shifted to ts dz š ž l'. In addition, the uvular approximant r was often fronted to a bilabial β and the velar nasal ŋ to a palatal ñ. Since there were no phonemes with these values in other contexts, there was no confusion to be had. This happened mostly with the speakers of what would later become Pabappa.
After initial unstressed /u/, all consonants became labialized. Thus uġau "heart" > uġʷau. This change extended even to clusters.
~~Initial unstressed /o/ and /e/ rose to /u/ and /i/ respectively. (Hadnt they already bottomed out?)~~ (unless this remains for foreign loans)
Initial vowels were deleted unless an illegal consonant cluster would have resulted.
The fricatives fʷ vʷ became hʷ ʕʷ (though ʕʷ was gʷ allophonically).
All schwas and diphthongs became low tone.
The glottal stop disappeared in all positions.
ʢ became the new glottal stop.
Labialized consonants lost their labialization when occuring after another labial or labialized consonant (used to explain bàigʷa > bàiga). This also affected labialized consonants occurring before syllabic ṁ ?
After a stressed syllable, intervocalic ʕ ʕʷ became g gʷ.
~~Vowel sequences like ea and oa changed to ia, ua, etc. unless the e/o was accented.~~
~~The vowel sequences àa èa òa became ā ē ō.~~
The velar fricatives h ɣ were rounded to hʷ ʕʷ before u.
~~The accent was shifted to the first syllable in all words. (??)~~
The consonant sequence sh (e.g. bisha "stick, twig") became ss. Likewise shʷ became ssʷ, except at the beginning of a word, where it was simply sʷ. This is distinct from the consonant sequence /sw/ which was much more common.
The voiceless fricatives sʲ zʲ became š ž unconditionally. (Thus mhyjax > mʰəyâ > fiâ > siâ > šâ, later ħâ).
Vowel sequences like ae ao, where the a was unaccented, shifted to ie uo, etc. ("The karaoke shift".)
Labialized fricatives that were not velar changed to "harsh" postvelar ones. e.g. sʷ zʷ became ħʷ ʕʷ.
The vowels e o both changed to a in all positions. (Short forms only.)
The voiceless fricatives š ž became ħ ʕ unconditionally.
NOTE: THERE WAS AN ADDITIONAL SOUND: PROBABLY ś, AN EJECTIVE FRICATIVE. IT IS THE SORCE OF ALL F IN BABA THAT IS S IN THAOA BUT NOT XW IN KHULLS.
Now the politeness taboo became extended to final velars and to consonant clusters, which had up to now always been required to begin with a velar consonant. k became p in syllable-final position except when word-final, in which case it became ts. g became b and dz accordingly. ŋ assimilated in word-medial position and became the glottal nasal ~ word-finally. Meanwhile, the velar fricatives h ɣ shifted to s z in both positions. All of this affected only polite speech.
Alliterative compounds whose first component was monosyllabic came to use the standalone form of the word rather than the connective. Previously there would have been no difference, but now that velar consonants had split into two there was a difference: word-medial ~ became m (from ~β) rather than ñ. Because of the fact that politeness registers now affected compounding processes, yielding a velar connecting consonant in the informal register but a labial or alveolar in the polite register, some word pairs came to have more than one possible mutual compound, and the forms were borrowed between the speech registers. Thus the barriers between the speech registers began to break down.

Thus Ukieipi had the consonants p b f v m w hʷ ʕʷ t d ṣ ð s z n l č ǯ j k g h ɣ r and the vowels a i u ə. There was a contrast between high and low tone, but it was only on the first syllable and it was mostly determined by what consonant began the word. Ukieipi was confined to Fox Island, even though other languages from Tapilula had already left the island.

<a href="file://alxon/Users/Soap/Documents/blop2/khulls.html">Khulls</a>

Ukieipi to Khulls (5800 BC or 4700)

(extremely conservative ... even the tone system is unchanged ... this lang will resemble Moonshine superficially, but the consonant system has "holes" that Moonshine has filled in through gradations. This language is spoken near Bābākiam, in the city of Pabap.

)

Initial phoneme inventory: /p b f v m w t d s z n l č ǯ j k g ŋ h ɣ r a i u ə/
Four tones: ă indicates stressed short vowels with no tone (i.e. a low tone), à indicates stressed short vowels with high tone, ā indicates stressed long vowels with a falling tone (seen as high + low), and á indicates stressed long vowels with a rising tone (seen as low + high). Two short stressed high vowels (e.g. àà) do not make a long vowel because there is an inherent glottal stop in the à tone whenever it comes before another vowel or at the end of a word. Thus the glottal stop could be considered marginally phonemic. Unstressed vowels can have tone in a shadowy way: no marker indicates a low tone, and a dot above (ȧ) indicates a high tone. However, these unstressed high tones are mostly swallowed except in long sequences of low tones.
Voiced stops other than "d" are rare, and cannot occur after another consonant except in some compounds. That is, there is no /mb/, /bb/, etc. But /d/ is an exception to this rule because it arose from different environments. /b/ and /g/ were marginal, in fact, and /g/ is generally spelled ğ or ġ which leaves {g} free for the much more common phoneme /ɣ/. But this is not carried over to the phonemic listings below.

All schwas became low-tone (previously they had all been high-tone).
The vowels a à ā aa changed to a à ā á. i ì ī ii became i ì ī í. u ù ū uu became u ù ū ú.
aə āə àə áə changed to ā. Schwa after a vowel, in general, assimilated to that vowel along the lines of the sound change here. (but did they even exist? The only missing conso is the glottal stop)
The diphthongs əi ài both changed to ē. àu became ō (there were no short versions of these vowels at this time.)
The uvular r changed to ʢ (a voiced pharyngeal fricative).
Fricatives preceded by ʕ became voiced. e.g. ʕs ---> z.
The vowel u, in all tones and lengths, changed to o of the same tone and length.
Unaccented long vowels (of any tone) became short.
Sequences like aʕa became pharyngealized vowels; these were considered a tone all their own and thus could not have tone (or length) distinctions. Pharyngealized vowels are spelled â, sometimes with an "x" before or after the vowel depending on the origin of the tone (more later). Thus ŋoʕos "evil spirit" became ŋôs.
Most voiced fricatives (but not ʕ) disappeared in unstressed positions e.g. z ---> 0. In stressed positions, they became ʕ.
Nondorsal + dorsal clusters such as pk tk mŋ nŋ changed to ppˁ ttˁ mm nn. Note that these only occurred in syllable onsets, and chiefly only grammatically inflected forms of words with simple consonants. (ˁ is a shortcut to show that they were not aspirated)
The clusters pŋ tŋ became pˁ tˁ (a shortcut to show that they were not aspirated) and if the syllable was accented, caused the following vowel to become pharyngealized.
Before or after a pharyngealized consonant, the vowel i became e. CANCELLED!!!
The aspirated stop dʰ became tʰ. (There was no bʰ).
The clusters mk nk became mpˁ ntˁ. (Unaspirated.)
The clusters km kn kŋ became m n ŋ but caused the preceding vowel (this could not be word-initial) to acquire the checked tone v̀. Thus akmà "cherry" became àmà, and words with two checked tones in a row were created.
The clusters kʕ ŋʕ became k ŋ and pharyngealized the following vowel (if it was accented). Thus loŋʕà "womb" became loŋâ.
~~The unaspirated voiceless stops p t became voiced: b d. k did not change.~~
The schwa vowel disappeared in all positions unless an illegal consonant cluster would be created. It labialized any consonant that preceded it. Thus labialized versions of all consonants were created. In cases where the schwa did not disappear, it changed to u (always low tone). If the syllable ended in the final consonant (which was particularly common after schwa), instead of becoming an "illegal" cluster, the consonant became syllabic. Thus the syllabic consonants s: m: p: z: l: were created. (Labializing influence caused the nasal and stop to be "m" and "p", as in Poswa.) Alternate spellings: s̄ p̄ m̄ l̄ z̄ The p was non-aspirated.
Where /ə/ collapsed, stress shifted syllables to the nearest adjacent one. This tone was mid-tone (ă) unless there had been a "dot" tone previously.
However the syllabic p: changed to ʷ before another consonant and to a regular non-aspirated pˁ in word-final position. The syllabic s̄ changed to ś (aspirated) before a vowel and s̄́ in a closed syllable (but these are not distinguished in spelling).
After a syllabic nasal, the final stop k (which was the only one that did occur) changed to match the position of the nasal. Thus ṁp ṅt ŋ̇k were created. Again, these were all non-aspirated and were often thought of as glottal stops by foreigners.
Sequences like hṁm (in kahṁma "dark-skinned") changed to ṁʰ, and so on.
Labialized coronals tʷ dʷ nʷ changed to kʰʷ gʷ ŋʷ before the vowel /a/ or /o/ (probably before *all* vowels eventually)unconditionally. Note that /dʷ/ ripens into a true /ġʷ/ later on, not the fricative gʷ.
The consonant cluster hʷg became kʰʷ (not xʷ, even though g was a fricative).
The cluster nð (spelled nd) became ṇ (a dental nasal). (or was it nd all along?) mv became ṃ (a labiodental nasal).
The voiceless fricative hʷ~f became xʷ (not hʷ) in all positions.
The clusters mb nd nġ became ??. (maybe they just stayed on as marginal phonemes)
~~Pharyngealized vowels cancelled the aspiration of any consonants that preceded them. This process remained productive through the end of the use of the pharyngealized tone.~~
The voiced sounds b bʷ v vʷ changed to ʢʷ. ġ changed to ɣ (usually spelled g).
The coronals č ǯ became š ž in all positions.
The voiced stop d became l in initial position, but r (a flap) elsewhere. ~~However it stayed as d before another l, or after a consonant such as k or ŋ. Also it didnt change if it was a stressed syllable onset.~~This did not affect dʷ.
The voiceless fricative h strengthened into x in most positions ... anything other than being after a stop or nasal.
Final k raised the preceding vowel to a high tone à (á if it was long) and then disappeared, though it left an allophonic glottal stop in some positions.
Palatalized velars, such as kʲ xʲ, became postalveolar.
The clusters ṗs ṗš became ps pš (that is, the /p/ became aspirated).
The sequences ʕə ʕʷə both became û. ʕəs became a syllabic ż.
The labialized fricative šʷ became hʷ.
Fricatives before syllabic nasals disappeared, but changed the preceding tone to high as if they had been syllable-final.
ya yo (on all tones) > ye.
(Early Poswa-era changes) ... NOT shared by Moonshine
Nasal consonants followed by /j/ became voiced stops: my ñy became by ǯy. (This includes the reflexes of /ny/ and /ŋy/.)
The palatal glide /j/ was deleted when not before a high vowel (it was only /e i u/ by now anyway).
The clusters ml nl ŋl changed to bl dl ġl, thus restoring voiced stops to a marginal phonemic position. WHAT ABOUT PALATALS?
The labialized consonants mʷ nʷ ŋʷ changed to bʷ dʷ ġʷ.
The sound /l/ disappeared after a voiced stop: the clusters bl dl ġl changed to b d ġ.
The voiceless labialized nasals mʷʰ nʷʰ ŋʷʰ changed to mpʷ ntʷ ŋkʷʰ. Non-labialized aspirated nasals also changed. In initial position, the nasal element dropped out. Thus there was once again a phonemic /tʷ/ in the language. However, there were some words such as kʷhʷnōn "beak" where there was an initial consonant as well, and in these cases the word became kʷhʷṅtōn.

Thus Ukieipi's original four tone system was preserved unchanged in Kuroras: ă à ā á (with unstressed variants a ȧ). However, minimal pairs between ā and á were few, and the whole system could still be analyzed as a length contrast, with ă corresponding to bare short vowels, à to short vowels followed by a glottal stop, ā to long vowels, and á to sequences of two short vowels (or in some words, one long vowel followed by a glottal stop). This is the method that was used for transcription of loanwords into Bābākiam.

The final phonology of Kuroras was /p pʷ m mʷ w t n s l r š ž j k ŋ x ɣ kʷ ŋʷ xʷ ɣʷ ʔ h ʢ hʷ ʢʷ b d ġ/ for consonants and /a e i o u ə/ with four tones for vowels. Dipthongs are not distinguished from vowel sequences and are mostly determined by accentuation patterns and tone. Many of the consonants are very marginal: /b d ġ bʷ dʷ ġʷ h hʷ ṃ ʔ ʢ ɣʷ/ all occurred in very restricted environments. Most of the labialized consonants were not particularly common either. Thus the "major" consonants were just /p m w t n s l r š ž j k kʷ ŋ x ɣ xʷ ʢʷ/.

Kuroras is unusual in that it has only unconditional changes for its vowels, apart from a few changes in tone. The other languages that descended from Ukieipi all had a few conditional changes that "filled out" the vowel system. Thus, even though Kuroras has five vowels, the vowels /e/ and /u/ are quite rare, because they descend from diphthongs that

were themselves rare.

Kuroras to Sarapios (2000 BC)

(still very conservative)

Initial phoneme inventory: /p pʷ m mʷ w t n s l r š ž j k ŋ x ɣ kʷ ŋʷ xʷ ɣʷ ʔ h ʕ hʷ ʕʷ/ for consonants and /a e i o u ə/ with four tones for vowels. Dipthongs are not distinguished from vowel sequences and are mostly determined by accentuation patterns and tone. Kuroras had a large inventory of "laryngeal" consonants: /x ɣ ʢ h xʷ ɣʷ ʢʷ hʷ/. But five of these are mostly marginal near-allophones of the other three, and indeed, half of the total consonant inventory consists of phonemes that would be considered "marginal". The stops /p/ and /t/ are fundamentally aspirated, but /k/ is not.
p pʷ t kʷ Are fundamentally aspirated, but occasionally appear as unaspirated, and are spelled ṗ ṗʷ ṭ k̩ʷ. These generally occur in place of clusters when the aspirated stops occured before a phoneme such as ʢ.
bʷ b d ġ ġʷ Rare voiced stops, mostly confined to clusters. Unlike the unaspirated stops above, these generally arise from nasals.
kʰ Unlike the other voiceless stops, /k/ in Kuroras is usually unaspirated. But it does sometimes occur with aspiration, usually indicating that aspiration from another stop has carried over to a preceding /k/.
ʕ Mostly occurs to break up vowel hiatus.
ʔ Although this phoneme is directly inherited from the parent language, it is very rare, generally surviving in compounds of a word that previously ended in ʕ (not ʔ) followed by a word beginning in a vowel.
ɣʷ Arises mostly from clusters such as ɣw and ɣʕʷ, and occasionally occurs as a word-initial voiced variant of xʷ.
mʰ nʰ ŋʰ lʰ rʰ Rare, originating entirely from clusters.
h hʷ Mostly confined to occurring after a consonant. These would be considered post-consonantal allophones of x xʷ if not for the existence of a few words with the clusters kx and kxʷ. Also there are a few words with bare /h/.

The consonant phonology with marginal consonants indicated in red would be: /pʷʰ pʰ tʰ k kʷʰ s š ž r x xʷ ɣ ʕʷ m n ŋ w l j ṗʷ ṗ ṭ bʷ b d ġ ġʷ kʰ kʷ ʔ h hʷ ʕ ɣʷ mʰ nʰ ŋʰ lʰ rʰ/.

The labialized fricative ʢʷ became r (uvular) in all positions. The inherited alveolar flap r can be spelled ř or ŕ.
Labialized labials delabialized before the vowel /u/.
All pharyngealized vowels became low-tone pharyngealized.
The fricatives xʷ x hʷ h all merged as x.
The ă and â tones both merged as â (pharyngealized, long, low).
Unaccented vowels on either side of an ā-tone vowel became low (ȁ).
Syllables beginning with a voiced fricative or stop became low-tone.
Other unaccented vowels became medium tone.
All fricatives (except r) became voiceless.
All low-tone vowels became pharyngealized (that is, there was only one low tone now, and it was always pharyngealized).
Remaining voiced stops devoiced.
Short vowels became silent or reduced to coarticulations if the resulting consonant cluster was acceptable (very similar to the "Debra shifts" of Pabappa and Poswa).
Vowel length disappeared.
Stress disappeared; Sarapios now had only tone.

Kuroras to Ogili (6800)

(Echo is 8500, this is the parent language)

Initial phoneme inventory: /p pʷ m mʷ w t n s l r š ž j k ŋ x ɣ kʷ ŋʷ xʷ ɣʷ ʔ h ʢ hʷ ʢʷ ġʷ/ for consonants and /a e i o u ə/ with four tones for vowels. Dipthongs are not distinguished from vowel sequences and are mostly determined by accentuation patterns and tone.

The lateral l disappeared after a voiced stop. (e.g. bl dl gl > b d g).
Unaspirated voiceless stops in a pharyngealized syllable became voiced.
Syllabic hʷ (common as a conditioned alternant of syllabic /s/) became hʷə.
The unaspirated voiceless stops ṗ ṭ k kʷ became voiced stops b d g ġʷ. (This is the same as the previous change, but generalized to all syllables.)
The alveolar flap r became n in all positions.
The labialized velar consonants kʷ xʷ merged as pʷ. hʷ became fʷ. sʷ and šʷ (e.g. in the word for "bomb") became pʷfʷ.
The labialized velar consonants ġʷ gʷ merged as bʷ. ʕʷ became vʷ.
All pharyngealized vowels became low-tone pharyngealized.
The voiceless nasals mʰ nʰ ŋʰ became mp nt ŋk.
The post-alveolar fricatives š ž changed to s z.
The vowel o changed to ə (also spelled /ɜ/) in all positions.
The vowel u changed to ɨ (also spelled /и/) in all positions.
Geminate consonants changed to normal ones; e.g. píssìná "toilet" became písìná. No tone change?
Sequences such as owi and iya where the first vowel was accented became ovʷi iža, etc.
Labialized labials delabalized in all positions.
~~Labialized consonants delabialized, but created new vowels â ê î ô û ə̂ (IPA /O u y u y u/).~~ CANCELLED!!!
The voiced stop ġ became ɣ between vowels.
The nasal ŋ disappeared between vowels and in initial position.
If there were two labial stops/nasals in a row with a vowel between them, the first one changed to coronal unless the vowel was long. Thus pamà "cold" changed to tamà, but pōpa "children" remained pōpa and povyn "crab" remained povyn. ~~If either of the stops was labialized, however, this shift did not happened.~~
If there were two velar stops/nasals in a row with a vowel between them, the first one changed to coronal unless the vowel was long.
Vowel length disappeared.
Stress disappeared; Echo now had only tone.

Final phonology: /p b m f w t d n s l r š ž j k ŋ g x/ for consonants and /a e i o u O/ for vowels.

Ukieipi to Thaoa (4500)

(expect about 90 changes to bring this in line with Blop)

Initial phoneme inventory: /p b f v m w t d s z n l č ǯ j k g ŋ h ɣ r a i u ə/
Starts arond 1900. Possibly Palli breaks off at the bfv > b stage, changing it to v instead, and later to f.

ī > ei, ū > ou.
r > ʡ
ʷa ʷi ʷu ʷə > ʷo ʷə ʷū wu. Possibly second one is uj.
final /p/ changed to k. /m/ stayed as m.
High tone > ʔ at end of silab (distinct from k)
final ʔ disappears after diphthongs and long vowels (it was redundant)
v g > r (distinct from ʔ) intervocalically.
All voiceless stops become aspirated in initial position.
Voiced stops become voiceless in initial position. ʡ > h
ai au > ae ao; aʡi aʡu > e o.
əi əu > oi eu.
ā > aʡ, aa > ʡa.
voiceless stop + ʡ > voiced stop.
mh nh ŋh > mp nt ŋk
bh dh gh > ph th kh
Clusters like kʰn (in tʰikʰnan "vomit") become all voiceless and aspirated --- so tʰikʰtʰan (or tʰiktʰan), etc.
f > ṣ (theta). Surviving /v/ > ẓ > z
z > l
The semivowel /y/ became /t/ between a voiceless stop and a vowel (e.g. kya > kta)
The semivowel /w/ became /p/ between a voiceless stop and a vowel (e.g. kwa > kpa)
The semivowel /y/ became /s/ between an aspirated stop and a vowel (e.g. khya > ksa)
The semivowel /w/ became /f/ between an aspirated stop and a vowel (e.g. khwa > kfa)
For the above changes, it was /d b z v/ if voiced.
For the above changes, if the cluster was word-initial, the first element disappeared. (e.g. kpi > pi)
For nasals, it's just /mm/ for the labial and ñ (spelled as ny) for the palatal.
The semivowel /y/ after a voiceless fricative turned that fricative into š and disappeared.
The semivowel /w/ became /f/ between a voiceless fricative and a vowel (e.g. swa > sfa)
tt > tš
ly > ž, lw > ʡw
voiced fric + y > ž; voiced fric + w > v (just that's it). f was spelled {v} now.
ry > ž, rw > ʡw
Final -s > -t ?
The semivowel /w/ became /p/ between a voiceless stop and a vowel (e.g. kwa > kpa)
tp > pp
voiced consonants became voiceless if preceded by a vless (even if over a vowel)
Final ʔ > long vowel?
FInal /k/ > ʔ.
awa & aya > ō ē.
ǯ > /j/ or /ž/
f v b > all merge as b (indistinct /w/-like sound; b is to w as ž is to y). THis happened rougly in the year 3600?
**Clusters such as /hp/ (almost exclusively in CaC- compounds) metathesized to /ph/, etc.
mb nd ŋg > mp nt ŋk
If two consos in a row were aspirated, the unaccented one loses aspiration.
ei > e; eih > ei; ou > o; ouh > ou.
ao > ea; aoh > ao. The rare triphthong aou > ao as well.
FInal h > long vowel.
Final ɣ (or ʡ) changed to n (a weak nasal that assimilates).
t > tš (except in certain clusters, such as kt & pt, or if aspirated)
s z > š ž; ṣ > s
ɣ > x (?) (If so this is where Palli does v > f). ~4000 year.
ei ou > ai au
Aspiration was lost when a consonant was preceded by a glottal stop. e.g. ʔth > ʔt.
d > t
Remaining voiced stops became nasals.
k > ʔ some intervocals (kk > k; this does not affect aspirated k)
If two aspirated consoants occur together, the first loses aspiration. Thus word-initial /t/ was created.
ala > al, etc. (but not alaʔ)
eu > ia
ael (but not ail) > al. CONTROVERISL !!! *pymphal
ʕʲ > ž (e.g. kʰuʕia "urine" > kʰuža).

Thaoa to Sakhi (8500)

Initial phoneme inventory: /p m w t s n l č ñ j k h x ŋ ɣ r ʡ ʔ š | a e i o u ə/ maybe b ž EXTREMELY conservative!

The clusters ʔm ʔn ʔŋ became b d g.
All sequences of a vowel followed by a glottal stop became long vowels. That is, aʔ eʔ iʔ oʔ uʔ əʔ became ā ē ī ō ū ə̄.
The distinction between long vowels and doubled short vowels was lost: all long vowels became doubled.
The short vowels e o became ə in all positions.
The long vowels ē ō changed to iə uə in all positions.
The distinction between long vowels and doubled short vowels was lost: all long vowels became doubled.
The voiced approximant b changed to ʢ before another consonant (?).
The vowel sequences ii uu became ʲə ʷə with the co-articulations cleaving on to the preceding consonant???.
The diphthongs ai au became əi əu in all positions.
Short vowels i u both became ə?????. contradicts change listed below
The voiceless aspirated stop pʰ became f almost unconditionally. e.g., the cluster kpʰ remained as kpʰ.
The diphthongs ae ao became ai au in all positions.
The voiceless unaspirated stops p t became b d (almost) unconditionally (they did not change in certain clusters, or in situations like pVCʰ).
The voiceless unaspirated stop k became ʔ (almost) unconditionally (it did not change in certain clusters, or at the endo f a word).
x > h
The diphthong oi became ʷi in all positions. (What about other labials?)
All labialized consonants became pure labials.
The sequences əw əj became u i; thus əwi "echo" > ui.
Schwa on either side of a vowel made it a long vowel.
Word-final ŋ merged to n.
Aspirated stops remained so, but the spelling was changed.
THe dipthongs ea ia became ē ī in all positions.
The diphthongs ae ao became ai au in all positions.
Vowel length, in all positions, was destroyed. (year 5547); this is considered "Old Sakhi".
=====================
The nasals ŋ ŋ changed to g dž (a voiced velar stop) unconditionally.
The stress accent was shifted to teh first syllabel in all words.
The clusters ps ms pš mš changed to ts ns tš nš.
All consonants became single.
Palatalization disappeared after labialized consonants.
Final y in trisyllabic words disappeared, even if it created a word ending in a cluster; it also disappeared between two vowels if the resulting consonant cluster was acceptable. However, all other vowels remained.
All clusters, such as bs (in pabsa "blonde") changed to match the voicing of the second consonant.
All palatalized consonants became postalveolar.
Velar sounds changed to postalveolar before front vowels; k g r became tš dž ž.
The diphthong əi changed to i unconditionally (this is how the sequence /ki/ survived).
ai au > e o
ž > z
Sequences like ua > wa.
bl > ll; but just /l/ if initial
Aspiration after an accented vowel skips to the beginning of the syllable, e.g. buhi > bhui, and devoices any stops or fricatives.
h > 0
Vowel sequences change into diphthongs ... e.g. ui > uj, but wi stays wi.
F > H except if in a consonant cluster.
Any diphthong ending in /j/ changed to a long /i/.
ew (spelled eu) > i
Any diphthong ending in /w/ changed to a long /u/.
Fricatives preceded by /j/ changed to postalveolars; fricatives preceded by /w/ changed to labials.
year 7000?
All non-sibilant fricatives (including /f v/) died.
/z/ died.
7414 AD

Ukieipi to Papies (3100)

Ukieipi was the language spoken in the city of Beni-Iubaia (earlier Iūni-Iubāia) around 8000 BC. It evolved into a language called Papies within about 1000 years, and then further into Babakiam by 6000 BC.

In the polite (frontalized) register, word-final ts dz became p b (generalized from compounds in which they became p b due to morphological rules that had arisen in Ukieipi). Thus there were no longer two possible realizations of the phonemes k g at the end of a syllable in the polite register: they were always p b. Likewise, fronted ŋ was generalized as m and h ɣ as s z.
Sequences like /ʕaʕ/, /ʕiʕ/, etc. lost the first /ʕ/ regardless of whether it was in the same syllable or not. (Possibly move this back even into Ukieipi.)
At the end of a syllable, z (which is /ʕ/) disappeared and changed the previous vowel to a high tone. It also voiced the following consonant. No new consonants arose from this change, but some voiced ones now became less restricted in their distribution.
The bilabial approximant w changed to ʕʷ (also spelled "v") before a vowel. Note that words like "kua" were still /kua/ rather than /kwa/ and thus did not undergo this change.
Then l became w (not ʕʷ) in all positions although it retained a rhotic allophone.
The rare labialized consonants kʷ ġʷ became p b unconditionally (not to be confused with the very similar shift below, which operated after a new wave of labialization!
Sequences of two vowels in which the first vowel was i or u became rising diphthongs. Then all clusters of a consonant followed by a semivowel came to be pronounced as coarticulated single consonants. Thus bua became bʷa, bia became bʲa, and so on. ñ was assimilated as nʲ.
The long vowels ē ō became əi əu.
The short vowels e o became i u if adjacent to a syllable with a high vowel, and ə otherwise.
Syllable-final k ŋ assimilated to the PoA of a following consonant. (Kuroras and Thaoa kept them distinct.)
The voiced labialized fricatives vʷ zʷ ɣʷ coalesced as w between vowels. But not ʕʷ ?
The voiced palatalized fricatives vʲ zʲ ɣʲ coalesced as j between vowels.
The voiced labialized stops bʷ dʷ ǯʷ gʷ changed to b between vowels.
The voiced palatalized stops bʲ dʲ ǯʲ gʲ changed to ǯ between vowels.
The voiced stops b d ǯ g (including ones created by the previous two rules) changed to β ð ž ɣ between vowels.
The voiced fricatives ð z ɣ became silent between vowels and occasionally in initial position (due to compounding). Clusters like ɣj and jɣ (in bàiɣa "temple") would change to a doubled /j/ instead of just a normal /j/. Thus doubled /j/ and /w/ were created.
βʷ changed to w.
žʲ became ž.
All aspirated consonants (except nasals) became voiceless, and the aspiration disappeared.

MOST COMMON DISAPPEARING CONSONANTS: d g zs zt zk
Thus the language now had the consonants p b m f v w β t d n s z ð č ǯ š ž j k g h ɣ r and the vowels a i u ā ī ū e, the last of which was a schwa. Of the consonants, all but w β ð č ǯ š ž j could be palatalized or labialized. In final position, p m s w j could occur, although p m were pronounced as glottals. This language was spoken on Fox Island, although the people were beginning to be pushed out by others. Some left and founded what became Bābā, others stayed on the southern tip of the island.

Puvutu Papies to Bābākiam (4100)

The cluster ps changed to ts, thus merging with frontalized k. pš became č.
A nasal in a cluster following p or s disappeared.
The glottal stop ʔ disappeared in all positions. (But not ʕ or ʢ or ĥ.)
The voiced fricatives β v z ž ɣ changed to b b d ǯ g before a high tone.
A voiced sound in a cluster following p or s changed to ɣ. (appears in many verb forms)
The post-velar fricative consonants ħ ʕ changed to f β. Note that this was the (rare) "true" /h/, not the common {h} which is /x/.
The clusters pɣ sɣ changed to the ejectives ṕ ś, but this shift did not affect the labialized or palatalized versions. (These are the same consonants that became clicks in some Kxel languages.) Note: really this should not just be /p/ and /s/, but really all voiceless sounds. What happened to sequences like mk or pk?
The velar fricatives h ɣ were fronted to š ž unconditionally. šʲ žʲ became š ž.
The voiced stops bʷ dʷ ǯʷ gʷ changed to b.
The voiced stops bʲ dʲ ǯʲ gʲ changed to ǯ.
The voiced stops b d ǯ g changed to p t č k (except when in clusters).
The voiced fricative ð changed to β. (ð had been revived due to loanwords.)
The voiced fricatives v vʷ zʷ žʷ changed to β.
The voiced fricatives vʲ zʲ žʲ changed to ž.
βʷ changed to w.
žʲ became ž.
Tones were eliminated. However the stress accent (nouns on the penultimate syllable, verbs on the ultimate) remained and became regularized.
The voiced stops d ǯ g changed to n nʲ ŋ unconditionally.
The cluster pb became pp.
β changed to b.
z changed to s.
The ejectives ṕ ś became plain.
The postalveolar affricate č was softened to š unconditionally.
Newly created vowel sequences beginning with i or u collapsed into rising diphthongs, thus creating a new series of palatalized and labialized consonants.
The labialized consonants bʷ žʷ changed to b unconditionally.
The palatalized consonants bʲ žʲ changed to ž unconditionally.
The stress was shifted to the first syllable in all words. Thus the language had the consonants p m f b w t n s k ŋ š ž j and the vowels a i u ə, the last of which was a schwa. Of the consonants, all except b w ž j could be followed by a semivowel w or j, when occurring at the beginning of a syllable. At the end of a syllable, only p m w s j could occur. This stage of the language is referred to as Bābākiam, "city language". Spoken around the year 4100, not only in the city of Bābā but a significant amount of territory away from it in all directions.

Bābākiam to Poswa (8700)

Long vowels in initial syllables became double: ā ī ū became aa ii uu.
The double vowels ii uu became ʲi ʷu in all positions.
Between two consonants in a monosyllabic word, the diphthongs au ai eu ei changed to o ae u e. iu > y, ui > i/y, uu > u, ii > i (Note: eu > y if unstressed, hence peum > pym > pum; but this is actually a later shift) But in longer words, or when a consonant cluster was adjacent, a b was inserted and the individual vowels were retained. And in word-final position they remained as diphthongs (to undergo a slightly different shift later).
ā changed to aba in all positions.
At the beginning of a syllable and after p m, the semivowels w and j shifted to r and l respectively. At the end of a syllable, no shift took place, but the orthography was changed as if it had.
The voiced postalveolar fricative ž changed to the palatal approximant j in all positions.
The consonant šʲ became ś, a voiceless palatal approximant. fʷ became a voiceless rounded labial approximant.
The velar stops k ŋ changed to the labials p m in final position.
The medial clusters pt mt pn mn shifted to tt nt tn nn. Then pk mk sk pŋ mŋ sŋ became pt mpt št pn mn šn. ms mš became mps mpš.
The cluster sf changed to ff.
The labialized consonants sʷ tʷ nʷ shifted to ps pʷ mʷ in word-initial position, and ps pt bʷ medially.
The new clusters lw rw ww merged as w.
The consonant clusters mʷ mr ml ŋʷ shifted to bʷ br bl gʷ unconditionally.
Meanwhile šʷ changed to pš. (***MOST KURORAS LOANS ENTER HERE***) year 4700
In initial position before a vowel, the voiceless labial fricative f changed to w. It also happened often to a word-internal -f- preceded by a /w/ of any origin. (e.g. bwafa "hug" > bwawa) This shift did not affect fʲ.
After a labialized consonant (except w), the schwa vowel y changed to u.
Labialized consonants lost their labialization when they occurred before u. (But later they were re-introduced through compounding.)
The sequences ow and uw changed to o and u respectively. This is the stage at which most "early Poswa" loans entered the Sak languages.
The vowels i and u changed to e and o in closed syllables. (Note that verbs still had a weak vowel -u and thus did not participate in this change. For the same reason, many verbs did not participate in rule 2 either and thus did not have these vowels to begin with, even if the corresponding nouns did. Example, 'rum' (child) was still rimu here. However, they were later analogized as if they had in fact dropped those vowels, hence rum instead of rim.)
The vowel y in closed syllables changed to either i or u depending on the other vowel in the root. The default choice was u, unless it followed a w. i was chosen only when it followed a w or was in a word in which an i or e was in an adjacent syllable and that was the only other vowel in the word.
The sequences wu wo changed to wi we.
Then, s and p disappeared before nasals and sporadically in stem-final position due to back-formation from plurals (e.g. pe "island" from pena, earlier pes, pesna). sb -> b, not to be confused with later shifts in which it turned into žb (re-compounding of words ending in s with words beginning with b happened essentially continuously; this shift was one time only). Also not to be confused with a much earlier shift of sb -> s (persistent in verbs, but nowhere else). Thus the plurals of words ending in s lost the s in their nominal but not their verbal forms.
Unaccented i changed to e unless the accented syllable of the word contained an i.
Then unaccented y changed to i unless the syllable ended in a labial or the accented syllable of the word contained a y. Politically, the proto-Poswobs became independent here (5547), but the language remained unified through physical contact for another 450 years or so.
The consonant cluster ŋʲ assimilated to nʲ.
Then unaccented u changed to y except when the syllable ended in a labial or the accented syllable also contained a u. Note that this change was often ignored in possessive-case nouns due to analogy with other case endings.
Before a vowel, unaccented y and yb changed to u.
Before a vowel, unaccented a and ab changed to i ("the karaoke shift").
Next, i changed to y if the next syllable had u.
The palatalized consonants pʲ mʲ sʲ lʲ rʲ, which had been created mostly by rule 28, changed to f v ś j b before a vowel. bʲ also changed to b. šʲ žʲ became ś j. (year 6000; THIS IS WHERE PABAPPA BREAKS OFF)
In stressed syllables, in only a few words, ol ul or ur changed to we wi wa wa. The conditioning environment was that the syllables had to be unstressed and have only one consonant before them; in other words, they occured in compounds only, in a syllable which would be stressed if it weren't a compound.
Simultaneously, syllable-final r in most words changed to b. AQcutaly, it was f/v before coronals, b in absolute final position, stays r before šž + labials + velars (but really pronounced as /w/). rl > vl. rr > wr (spelled rr for now, but later as rw). probably š ž before šž actually, but f before s changing to š. Sometimes au+labial -> o even so, no particular rule. It always changed to /o/ in the initial sllable of a word, ignoring all these other rules. thus pautu > poty, not pafty.
The surviving final r changed to vʷ fʷ before labials. fʷ became w.
The palatal approximants ś j (including any /j/ taken from loans) changed to š ž in all positions.
fʷ became w before a vowel (that is, everywhere except before a labial).
In words not affected by the previous shift (mostly due to grammatical analogy), syllable-final ar and yr shifted to o and er and ir shifted to u. However ar did not shift to o after a /w/, but rather became abʷ (by analogy).
In unstressed syllables before a nasal, the sequences el il merged as i and or ur merged as u.
Unstressed ol and ul became e before a consonant or at the end of a word.
i and y shifted to u before a labial in a closed syllable. THIS IS WHERE TUPPY BREAKS OFF (year 6843)
ŋ was denasalized to g in all positions.
The palatalized velar consonants kʲ gʲ became the postalveolar affricates tš dž. In some dialects, including the one that produced Pabappa, this shift did not occur before back vowels, and instead the consonants were reduced to plain velars.
The labialized velar consonants kʷ gʷ pʷ bʷ were decomposed to the clusters kw gw pw bw.
Final y in trisyllabic words disappeared. Due to analogy, it disappeared in some shorter words as well. However, consos that now occurred at the end of a word because of the dropped y became labialized, though this is not shown in Romanizaiton. Thus minimal pairs such as nap "pyramid" versus napʷ "arrow" did exist.
The remaining palatalized consonants became labiodental fricatives: fʲ and tʲ merged as f, and nʲ changed to v. pf became ff.
Medial vowels in trisyllabic words disappeared if the resulting consonant cluster was acceptable ("the Debra shift"). wr>rw. Here again, labialization hung around if the deleted vowel was o u or y. Thus there were minimal pairs such as puppa "salamander" vs pupʷpa "kind, humanitarian". This period (around the year 7300) is the beginning of what is often considered "Classical Poswa" (Poswa Maswumbies). Poswobs invaded Pabappa territory beginning around 7414, and the language was essentially unchanged at that time.
š before a nasal changed to ž and the nasal changed into a voiced stop. At this time, the new sound d was spelled with the letter v.
Clusters in which the two elements were at different PoA's AND different classes resolved in the following ways:
pn bn > vž
šn sn > žv
tm km > vb
fm vm > vb
šm žm sm šb sb > žb
tp > pp
pm tn > mm nn
The clusters pk and bg became pw and bi respectively. mk became mw (not mpw). And likewise for other consonants.
The voiced velar stop g was fronted to dž unless it occurred in a cluster after another consonant and before a o u.
The clusters šb and bš were devoiced to šp and pš respectively.
The clusters žp and pž became žb and bž respectively.
The clusters pl and bl became p and b respectively when overlaying two unaccented syllables. The same also happened for other stop + nonstop clusters such as pr br pš ps bž pt pf bv, althoiugh pš, pf, and ps survived as aspirates pʰ for long enough to survive a particular subsequent shift. Clusters like mž and mdž > mbž > mb.
The sequences yw ww wy changed to ʷu in all positions (these three were all seen as the same thing anyway, w & y are just Romanization.)
wi+vowel > i+vowel (wawia "sadism" > waia but still spelled wawia). Likewise, the recently created ʷu > u before vowels. Neither of these changes occurred in absolute initial position, however; wialeb "also" remained wialeb.
iy > ia (platia "record"); ii > ie (plopie "grass").
In wholly unstressed syllables, except when preceded by a, the clusters rl and lr changed to al and ar respectively, and raised the preceding vowel.
The cluster rgw (occurring only in "wirgwep" and similar words) became vbw, with both consonants labialized.
A velar-onset syllable preceded by another changed to alveolar if the vowel was a back vowel, but postalveolar if it was a front vowel. The affected consonants were k g kw gw r.
The inherited vowel y had lowered and weakened to a schwa in most positions. Now the diphthong al (but not alʷ) went to ae and yl to e. ae was pronounced in some dialects as ai or a, with the a pronunciation winning out in all but a few words.
The labiodental fricatives f v came to be pronounced as the dentals ṣ ẓ in all positions, but there was no change in the spelling.
Geminate stops overlaying two unaccented syllables reduced to single if there was another geminate earlier in the word. This affected only compounds such as "talap bavva", which spawned a new variant talabbava and then created the new word "bava", and pam mepoppos became pam mepopos.
pb --> p sporadically, especially overlaying two unaccented syllables. Likewise also šb > š, etc.
mp --> mb after a voiceless conso (e.g. pampa>pamba), except if another voiceless conso followed
Initial ps pš --> ph --> p, also sometimes if overlaying two unaccented silabs just as pl bl had. (Thus pampsa > pampa, not pamba).

ž>j problems??

Thus standard Ižda Mir, if labialized consonants are included as phonemes, had the consonants w p pʷ b bʷ m mʷ f fʷ v vʷ t tʷ n nʷ s sʷ l lʷ r rʷ š šʷ ž žʷ k kʷ g gʷ and the vowels a e i o u y, the last of which was a schwa. At the beginning of a syllable, all of the consonants as well as the clusters pl pr bl br tš dž were allowed. At the end of a syllable, all consonants were allowed, but were restricted based on the consonant that followed. At the end of a word, p m s l b pʷ bʷ mʷ fʷ vʷ tʷ nʷ sʷ lʷ rʷ šʷ žʷ kʷ gʷ were allowed.

However, the pronunciation of the phonemes given above was not strictly adhered to in all contexts by all speakers. Generally, only those Bloppabops who were Moonshines and also spoke some dialect of Moonshine would stick to the phonology given above. Monolingual Bloppabops and habaps would often have their own variant pronunciations, which although perceived by the speakers of proto-Bloppabop/Ižda Mir as being merely an idiolectal variation of no significance, often led to surprisingly divergent results in the later Bloppabop languages. For example, some speakers consistently pronounced š ž k g as /s z t d/ in most environments, retaining the standard pronunciations of these phonemes as scarce allophones if at all. Other dialects kept š ž intact but changed k g into velar fricatives. The standard pronunciations were more likely to be reflected in daughter languages belonging to the Eastern branch of the Bloppabop family, because only in Eastern Pupompom did true bilingualism and interracial cohabitation continue to flourish, meaning that language change was mostly dependent on concomitant changes in Moonshine; in the Western and Central sections of the Empire knowledge of Moonshine declined and sound changes accelerated as the proto-Bloppabop phonology left to stand by itself without the addition

of Moonshine was highly unstable.

Bābākiam to Old Tahno (6500)

Long vowels in initial syllables became double: ā ī ū became aa ii uu.
The double vowels ii uu became ʲi ʷu in all positions.
Between two consonants in a monosyllabic word, the diphthongs au ai eu ei changed to o ae u e. iu > y, ui > i/y, uu > u, ii > i (Note: eu > y if unstressed, hence peum > pym > pum; but this is actually a later shift) But in longer words, or when a consonant cluster was adjacent, a b was inserted and the individual vowels were retained. And in word-final position they remained as diphthongs (to undergo a slightly different shift later).
ā changed to aba in all positions.
At the beginning of a syllable and after p m, the semivowels w and j shifted to r and l respectively. At the end of a syllable, no shift took place, but the orthography was changed as if it had.
The voiced postalveolar fricative ž changed to the palatal approximant j in all positions.
The consonant šʲ became ś, a voiceless palatal approximant. fʷ became a voiceless rounded labial approximant.
The velar stops k ŋ changed to the labials p m in final position.
The voiced labial stop b became ṿ in all positions.
Certain vowel sequences separated by ṿ lost it and lengthened the first vowel: iva uva became īa ūa . Meanwhile ivu uvu became īu ū and ivi uvi changed to ī ūi . ivə uvə became ū ūə . In a few words, these changes also applied across word boundaries due to reanalysis.
The bilabial fricative ṿ sometimes became w initially or between vowels.
The fricative ž changed to l in all positions except after a voiceless consonant, in which case it changed to š.
Instances of a short i or u followed by a vowel of any length changed to ʲ ʷ and formed co-articulated consonants.
The co-articulated consonants created in the previous rule became voiced unless they followed a voiceless consonant.
The clusters bʲ bʷ became b.
A long vowel followed by another vowel became short. Thus sequences like tʷa and tua could contrast.
The palatalized nasals mʲ nʲ ŋʲ turned into ñ.
The palatalized nasals mʲ nʲ ŋʲ turned into ñ.

In some dialects, including the one that led to Pabappa, there was a merger between the velar stops k g and the postalveolar affricates tš dž; both became velar before back vowels and postalveolar before front vowels; a in this shift behaved like a front vowel.

Thus standard Ižda Mir, if labialized consonants are included as separate phonemes, had the consonants

p b m w f v t n s l r š ž k g
 and the vowels a e i o u y, the last of which was a schwa. 
  At the beginning of a syllable, all of the consonants as well as the clusters pl pr pw ps pš bl br bw (tš dž) kw gw

were allowed. (The parenthesized clusters did not exist in proto-Bloppabop.) At the end of a syllable, all consonants were allowed, but were restricted based on the consonant that followed. At the end of a word, p m s l r f v š ž b were allowed.

Išena Mir to Proto-Pabappa (~6500) ... too early?

Debra shift I. (But rV and wV didnt compress) ("ae" and "al" remained distinct here). If the deleted vowel was y, o or u, the preceding consonant became a labial. If a consonant was already labialized or palatalizzed, it did not contract. l r > u (later to disappear)
fʲ --> f
ŋ was denasalized to g in all positions, except certain clusters such as ŋr.
tš dž (mostly in compounds because the normal k->tš shift didnt happen here) --> kʲ gʲ
Diphthongs of all types were resolved in favor of the first vowel. (including things like nʲa and tʲa to ni and ti, and mwa to mu.) Be careful to remember that tʲ and fʲ did not merge here, and in fact have different out comes even for the vowels that followed them. Likewise, kʷ and all other labialized consonants turned their next vowel into /u/.
Stops occurring before a nasal assimilated fully.
The cluster žž simplified to j.
Clusters of two fricatives of differing points of articulation were assimilated in favor of the second consonant.
The cluster žbž simplified to žž. Other clusters, such as sps (in pospsar "urine"), simplified similarly.
Clusters of fricatives and stops of dissimilar voicing were resolved in favor of the second consonant. For example žp became šp.
The clusters gv kf became bv pf. (Thus Paleo-Pabappa kagyvi "poison" became Proto-Pabappa kabvi.)
The fricative š changed to h in initial position and s elsewhere.
The fricative ž came to be pronounced z.
The cluster rr was reduced to r. This is considered to be the stage of proto-Pabappa.

Proto-Bloppabop to Pabappa (8700)

Proto-Pabappa to Pabappa (8700)

Pabappa evolved from a dialect of Bloppabop that lacked the vowel m in place of the former and k g in place of the latter in all words. However, these sounds were pronounced as /tš dž/ before all front vowels, including /a/. Thus the proto-Pabappa dialect of Bloppabop had the consonants p b m w f v t n s l r h z k g and the vowels a e i o u y, the last of which was a schwa. At the beginning of a syllable, all of the consonants as well as the clusters pl pr pw ps pš bl br bw kw gw were allowed. At the end of a syllable, all consonants were allowed, but were restricted based on the consonant that followed. At the end of a word, p m s l r f v z b were allowed. Then the following changes occurred:

Double nasals were reduced to singles.
The vowel ə either disappeared or became i or o (governed by the surrounding vowels' HEIGHT (not backness)). If it disappeared, it also labialized the new final consonant.
The fricative z disappeared in all positions, except in a few words where it remained as d. Meanwhile the fricative v changed to d in all positions, except in a few words where it disappeared. These irregularities are explained by an early irregular stage of the sound change where z and v changed places in a few words.
Unstressed cliticized prefixes were dropped from the language or phonologically incorporated into the following word by dropping the vowel, even when this created a previously forbidden consonant cluster.
The velar stops k g changed to the fricatives š ž in all positions. Before back vowels, they were usually pronounced as velar fricatives.
The labialized consonants sʷ šʷ both became f (only to change to s later).
The cluster sš (usually from /sk/) became šš.
The fricative f changed to p in initial position and s elsewhere. This stage, reached around 7000 (?), is considered to be the classical stage of Old Pabappa, also called Pespimbesa.
The labiovelar stops kw and gw changed to the bilabial stops p and b in all positions. fw -> f, sw -> w, tw -> pw, vw -> w, žw -> w.
The single bilabial stop p became the geminate pp when following a voiceless consonant plus a vowel.
The postalveolar fricatives ž and š became the labiodental fricatives v and f in all positions.
Unstressed initial pu- changed to purp- before a vowel, where -rp- is a hypercorrection of the epenthetic r that had appeared near the earliest stages of the language. pu-p- and pu-w- became w-. pu-b- became pu-br-. pu-t- became pu-d-.
In initial position, the clusters sp st ps coalesced as s. sl survived, but only in one native word; the others were all either loans or proper names.
The voiced stops b and d became the voiceless stops p and t in all positions. Fricatives did not devoice, but clusters such as bv became pf.
Non-labial final consonants were replaced with labials in most words (except -l and -r). s->f->0. Final b became p.
Final e disappeared, even after consonant clusters, except in monosyllabic words and some suffixes. This created new consonant clusters in agglutinative forms of words and in compounds. Sporadically, monosyllabic words that had ended in e got a new -s or -ssi suffix which caused the original e to be retained; this happened to other monosyllabic vowel-final words too.
Before a nasal, p s t n assimilated completely.
Clusters of a nonlabial stop followed by a labial stop were resolved in favor of the nonlabial one.
Final o was were lowered to a except if the accented vowel was mid-height (e or o). Final e (in the case that it survived the previous sound change) was raised to i in the same environment. This is considered to be the classical stage of Middle Pabappa.
Thus the phonology of Middle Pabappa was /p m w f v t n s l r h/ for consonants and /a e i o u/ for vowels.
The sequence aw changed to o before any nonrounded vowel. ow and uw became o and u.
The clusters tl and ttl both changed to ll. (was rpl)
The sequence sr became spr. lr became rr. Any other nonlabial consonant before r became labial. Then mr changed to mpr.
Clusters of a nasal followed by any other consonant of differing point of articulation were assimilated in favor of the point of articulation of the second consonant.
ml became mpl. (7414 war occurs here?)
The voiceless labiodental fricative f changed to w in initial position.
h changed to 0 in all positions. (maybe h > f > w internally before u?)
Initial pw became w.
Unstressed syllables of the form CVCC where the two latter C's were a geminate or one of a few other types of consonants changed the vowel to a very short schwa ə.
Intervocalic voiceless stops became voiced. (Possibly omit this shift if a geminate voiceless is nearby.) The cluster pl became bl in all positions; pr became b in word-initial position, and br elsewhere. (maybe just -b- everywhere since it would be the only b in the language after clusters and thus not contrast with anything.)
The geminate stops pp and tt became p and t in all positions. Meanwhile ss became s. (Possibly omit this shift if another geminate is changing)
The cluster sp became ss. Most suffixes that had formerly begun with p were now considered to begin with b, but this b was realized as b only after a vowel or a bilabial consonant; elsewhere the consonant disappeared or, in the case of t and d, doubled the preceding consonant. After p, which would normally be omitted, the suffix came to begin with p. (ANDANESE PABAPPA SPLITS OFF HERE)
Initial v became f.
The labiodental fricatives f and v became the bilabial stops p and b in all positions.
The marginal schwa phoneme disappeared, creating some new clusters and geminates. (Debra shift II.) Thus words like popa "oak tree/rabbit" (a homophone pair) became -ppa when they were the second element of a compound. If the new cluster was "impossible", it retained a vowel (either /i/ or /u/) instead. However, outside of place names and personal names, these new affixes did not actually survive very often, as they were a unique word form in the language, and in most cases the new words were restored to compounds (since they had been almost all compounds anyway).
The bilabial stop b, between two identical unaccented vowels (e.g. -aba, -obo), turned to m sporadically as the result of analogy from various noun declensions.
The clusters tr dr, which only occurred in loans and a few compounds, became k g.

Thus the final phonology of Pabappa was /p b m w t d n l s r/ for consonants and /a e i o u/ for vowels. The phonemes /k/ and /h/ were common in borrowings, but many speakers pronounced these as /ʔ/ or /0/. A few speakers, however, did pronounce [k] and [h], because [k] appeared as an allophone of /t/ before /r/ (even though this sequence itself was also found only in loans), and [h] appeared as an allophone of /r/ in initial position. In the so-called "Post-Pabappa" language, when the speakers of Pabappa were crushed by invading armies into living along the south coast, true phonemic /k/ and /x~h/ became more common.

Western (Andanese) dialect: ar er ir or ur > au eu iu oa ua; al el il ol ul > al el il oi ui. (i.e. clear L survives, dark L dies.) v f > b p (without the change of v > f > P initially; thus pipi "wall" is bipi).

Middle Pabappa to Wuwa dialect (~8400)

The voiced fricative v became b in all positions.
The voiceless fricative h changed to f before "u".
The sequences ar or ur both became o, thus introducing a new final vowel to the language.
The sequences al el il both became e, thus introducing a new final vowel to the language.
The sequences ol ul changed to ae.
The voiceless fricative f changed to w in all (most?) positions.
The voiceless fricative h changed to š in all positions.
Initial vowels disappeared when in words of three or more syllables; ipotto > potto. Did they also lengthen the next vowel?
The vowel sequences eu iu ou uu changed to ō ū o u unconditionally. (ou uu changed earlier than the others.)
Word-internally, an -s at the end of a syllable disappeared and lengthened the preceding vowel.

Proto-Pupompom to Wawiabi dialect (~8400)

The voiced fricative v became b in all positions.
The voiceless fricative h changed to f before "u".
The sequences ar or ur both became o, thus introducing a new final vowel to the language.
The sequences al el il both became e, thus introducing a new final vowel to the language.
The sequences ol ul changed to ae.
The voiceless fricative f changed to w in all (most?) positions.
Diphthongs of all types were resolved in favor of the first v

Thus standard Ižda Mir, if labialized consonants are included as separate phonemes, had the consonants

p b m w f v t n s l r š ž k g
 and the vowels a e i o u y, the last of which was a schwa. 
  At the beginning of a syllable, all of the consonants as well as the clusters pl pr pw ps pš bl br bw (tš dž) kw gw

were allowed. (The parenthesized clusters did not exist in proto-Bloppabop.) At the end of a syllable, all consonants were allowed, but were restricted based on the consonant that followed. At the end of a word, p m s l r f v š ž b were allowed.

Starts at sound change 41 (ŋ > g)

Išena Mir to Tuppy (~8400)

The postalveolar affricates tš dž changed to ts dz in all positions.
ŋ was denasalized to g in all positions.
The velar stops k g changed to tš dž in all positions.
Debra shift?? Same conditions as Poswa.
The palatalized consonants tʲ nʲ changed to ṣ ẓ in all positions (distinct from f v, unlike Poswa).
The labialized velar stops kʷ gʷ changed to k g before /i/ and /u/, but remained as they were before /a e o/ (and y). What about "taky" etc?
The dental fricatives ṣ ẓ changed into stops ṭ ḍ after consonants and at the beginnings and ends of words. f v in these positions became pf bv (sometimes spelled ṗ ḅ).
The clusters pr br became pf bv in all positions.
The clusters pf bv became p b before a rounded vowel or a /w/.
The velar stops k g became h r intervocalically.
Remaining r became g after consonants.
THe clusters tš dž simplified to t d when not before a front vowel. Maybe stays tš word-initially.
Final unaccented e became i.
The vowel u, when not adjacent to a labialized consonant, became y.
The clusters kʲ gʲ became tš dž in all positions.
Vowels before labialized consonants became rounded: a e i o u y became o u î u u u.
Unaccented double consonants became single. This is the only source of later final -k that is not after /o/ or /u/.
The vowel î became y (even though the existing 'y' vowel was /1/).
Be braver with diphthongs?? Maybe -ae- changes to -ou- or -au- with labialized consonants nearby.
Final /y/ disappeared, even if leaving a cluster behind. Also /e/ (only in loans). Maybe delete ALL /y/, and have new /y/ come from labialized i. Much of this disappearing /y/ would come from earlier /u/ that was not between labials ... this, in turn, could labialize before disappearing.
Diphthongs of all types were resolved in favor of the first v

Proto-Pupompom (5547) to Lypelpyp dialect (~8400)

(has tones??)
All consonants became labialized before the back rounded vowels /o u y/, unless they were already palatalized. This could be restated as saying that the vowels o u y became ʷo ʷu ʷy.
The unrounded velars k g ŋ became tš dž ñ unconditionally.
The consonant sequences ps pš became ts tš.
The palatalized stops tʲ kʲ both became tš unconditionally.
The sequences ʲy ʷy changed to ʲi ʷu. (Thus lʷypel "scorpion" became lʷupel.)
The unstressed vowel e disappeared or turned to i, even in closed syllables (unlike Pabappa). Unlike Poswa, clusters such as tš were allowed in word-final position. Thus ñefatše "fairy" became ñefatš.
The voiced fricative s became z before a voiced stop (also others?).
The labialized velar consonants kʷ gʷ ŋʷ became k g ŋ unconditionally.
Labialization disappeared on all consonants.
The sequence ʲa became ʲe. ʲu became ʲy.
Palatalization disappeared on all consonants. Thus ʲe ʲy changed to simple ē y. (not ī?)
The clusters pr br changed to f v in initial position or after a consonant and pf bv intervocalically.
The clusters pl bl changed to l l in initial position or after a consonant and tl dl intervocalically.
The postalveolars š tš ž dž became s ts z dz.
Clusters such as mps mpš mpt changed to the PoA of the second consonant.
The clusters ts dz became t d when not between vowels.
The sequences ar or changed to ō unconditionally. al became ae.
The sequences ae el il changed to ē ē ī unconditionally (but note that most inherited /el/ had changed to /il/ already).
The sequence er changed to e unconditionally (but note that most inherited /er/ had changed to /ir/ already).
The cluster ts dz became ss zz unconditionally. (Thus most intervocalic /k/ was /ss/ now.)
The sound ŋ, which at this time occurred only before back rounded vowels, became silent.
The clusters dl tl became d t between vowels.
The sequences ol ul became ō ū. (if have vowel length, where does ā come from?) WHere does short e come from?
The voiced fricative z became silent.
Long ē became short e.
Double vowels became long. This happened in the year 6843. Here the language splits into two dialects: one for lypelpyp, the other for Senem.
The double ss became ś, a glottalized fricative. Also, ps ts ks became pś tś kś, and all 's' after a consonant in general became ś.
The plain voiceless fricative s became voiced to z unless before a voiceless consonant. Thus festura "bomb" remained so.
aspiration develops on stops before or after voiceless consos. Howevere, double stops resisted this. (?)
Clusters like pn assimilated nasally, to such as mn.
b d dž g > m n ñ ŋ except in certain clusters or word-initially
ś > h after a stop. Thus pś tś became pʰ tʰ.
later this goes all to Palomino style
ś > s.
p > b except if asp (what about other stops>)
Long vowels became sequences of vowel + /w/. (even ē, ī, etc)
f > h, unless in clusters like sf.
GREAT VOWEL SHIFT

i > e
u > i
o > u
(conditrional of course)
some vowel + w sequences changd to rounded vowels. Possibly all > u except aw > o. (unless there's a new ü)

(Pre-)Bābākiam to Old Lunila (5700)

Note that this language preserves č.

Long vowels in initial syllables became double: ā ī ū became aa ii uu.
The bilabial approximant w became v before any vowel, f before any voiceless consonant, and b before any voiced consonant or at the end of a word.
The consonant s became ž before any voiced consonant (soon to change to /l/).
The fricative ž changed to l in all positions except after a voiceless consonant, in which case it changed to š.
The short vowels a i u changed to ă e o in all closed syllables, unless (for /i u/) they were preceded by another of the same vowel earlier in the word. (Or maybe just the accented silab.)
The short vowel a became o when touching any "dark" consonant (velars).
The short vowel ă became o when touching any "dark" or "round" consonant (velars and labials).
The short vowels a ă became e when touching any "light" consonant (palatalized).
The short vowel y became u when touching any "round" consonant (labials).
The short vowel y became i when touching any "light" consonant (palatals).
The short vowel u became y when touching any "light" consonant (palatals).
The short vowel ă became y when before or after a syllable with a high vowel.
The voiceless alveolar stop t became d between two vowels.
Vowel length disappeared in all situations.
The palatalized nasals mʲ nʲ ŋʲ turned into ñ.
The velar (and palatal) consonants k č ŋ ñ became t t n n unconditionally.
The labiovelar consonants kʷ gʷ (ŋʷ) became k g ŋ.
The labialized dental/alveolar consonants tʷ dʷ sʷ šʷ lʷ became p b f f w.
Labialization and palatalization disappeared on all consonants. (?)

Khulls to Proto-Lámū-Xaran (5547)

Initial phoneme inventory: /p pʷ m mʷ w t n s l r š ž j k ŋ x ɣ kʷ ŋʷ xʷ ɣʷ ʔ h ʢ hʷ ʢʷ ġʷ/ for consonants and /a e i o u ə/ with four tones for vowels. Dipthongs are not distinguished from vowel sequences and are mostly determined by accentuation patterns and tone.

The plain voiceless stops ṗ ṭ ḳ became ejectives ṕ t́ ḱ when they occurred as the onset of a stressed syllable. But the spelling was retained.
The vowels á é í ó ú merged into ā ē ī ō ū because the sandhi effect they had had on surrounding syllables was lost.
All voiced stops became plain voiceless stops unconditionally, thus phonemicizing the distinction between plain and ejective stops.
The rounded vowels o u changed to ɜ ɨ unconditionally.
Syllabic consonants became geminates, or plain if a geminate was not possible. If even a simple consonant was not possible, an /ɨ/ was inserted. e.g. ġʷṁma "very dark-skinned" ---> ġʷɨ̀mma.

Proto-Lámū-Xaran to Proto-Xaran (6618)

Xara is the language of the Khulls people who moved deep into Poswob territory and are not Moonshines or Lamuans.

Initial phoneme inventory: ???

All plain voiceless stops became voiced, except when occurring in clusters in which at least one other consonant was voiceless.
Ejective stops became geminate voiceless stops, except at the beginning or end of a word.
Between TWO labialized consonants, the short vowels a e i ɜ ɨ changed to ɔ ø y o u. Thus there were now ten vowels in the Xaran language, but eight of them were quite rare and five of them could only occur between two labialized consonants and were always short. Long vowels remained unchanged here.
After a front vowel (including a rounded one), all velar consonants became post-alveolar. In word-final position, they changed further into simple alveolars (?).
The sequences āʷ ēʷ īʷ ɜ̄ʷ ɨ̄ʷ changed to ɔ̄ er ir ō ū. (The alveolar r was spelled ř now.)
The sequences ɔʷ øʷ yʷ oʷ uʷ changed to ō ø̄ ȳ ō ū. Thus all final labialized consonants had been defeated.
The voiceless fricatives hʷ ʕʷ became fʷ vʷ. This change did not affect /xʷ gʷ/.
The sequences ʷa ʷe ʷi ʷɜ ʷɨ ʷɔ ʷø ʷy ʷo ʷu changed to .
The sequences ʷā ʷē ʷī ʷɜ̄ ʷɨ̄ ʷɔ̄ ʷø̄ ʷȳ ʷō ʷū changed to .
The sequences er ir became ea ia. These were true diphthongs.
Consonants became palatalized before /ɨ i/ followed by another vowel, or at the end of a word (?).
Labialization spread in certain consonant clusters. e.g. kʷt at the beginning of a word ---> kʷtʷ.
The unaccented short vowels ɜ ɨ were deleted unless an unacceptable consonant cluster would have resulted. Thus kàlɜ "bubble" ---> kal. (k was aspirated.) sɜgen "honey" ---> sgen (if g still survives). When accented, they merged as ə. Thus ġɜ̀ta "poison" ---> ġə̀ta.
The long vowels ɜ̄ ɨ̄ changed to ē ī unconditionally.

Ukieipi to Classical Moonshine (6800)

Moonshine inherited the phonology of a dialect of Ukieipi consisting of the consonants p m f b w t n s k ŋ š ž j and the vowels a i u ə, the last of which was a schwa. Unlike the dialect that produced Bloppabop, the consonants k ŋ were true velars. Of the consonants, all except b w ž j could be followed by a semivowel w or j, when occurring at the beginning of a syllable. At the end of a syllable, only p m w s j could occur. From this state the following sound changes occurred:

At the end of a syllable, ɣ disappeared and changed the previous vowel to a high tone. It also voiced the following consonant. No new consonants arose from this change, but some voiced ones now became less restricted in their distribution.
The bilabial approximant w changed to v before a vowel.
Then l became w in all positions, although it had an allophone as a voiced uvular fricative before vowels.
Sequences of two vowels in which the first vowel was i or u became rising diphthongs. Then all clusters of consonant + semivowel came to be pronounced as coarticulated single consonants. Thus pua became pʷa, pia became pʲa, and so on.
The voiced labialized fricatives vʷ zʷ ɣʷ coalesced as w between vowels.
The voiced palatalized fricatives vʲ zʲ ɣʲ coalesced as j between vowels.
The voiced fricative v changed to w between vowels.
The voiced labialized stops bʷ dʷ ǯʷ gʷ changed to b between vowels.
The voiced palatalized stops bʲ dʲ ǯʲ gʲ changed to ǯ between vowels.
The voiced stops b d ǯ g changed to β ð ž ɣ between vowels.
The voiced fricatives ð z ɣ became silent between vowels and occasionally in initial position (due to compounding). However, in many words the fricatives later reappeared as voiced stops due to analogy (e.g. via, locative vinta; later vida, vida).
Sequences of a nasal plus a voiceless stop changed into a voiced stop at the same POA. The preceding vowel became long.
Voiceless stops changed to voiced stops between vowels unless a voiceless sound began the previous syllable.
s and ʔ before a stop disappeared; the s lengthened the preceding vowel. (year 3100, contemporary with Iaubiai)
The velar stops k ŋ changed to the glottals ʔ ~ in final position. These came to be considered as allophones of p m rather than k ŋ because of the orthographical influence of the still-intelligible Ižda Mir, where they were now pronounced as those sounds.
The palatalized postalveolar consonants čʲ ǯʲ were depalatalized.
The labialized postalveolars čʷ ǯʷ became kʷ gʷ.
The palatalized velar consonants hʲ ɣʲ kʲ ŋʲ gʲ became š ž č ñ ǯ in all positions.
The uvular r became the alveolar trill ř.
The consonants wʷ, wʲ, jʷ, and jʲ, which had arisen through grammatical reanalyses, shifted to r, ř, ř, and l respectively.
Before u, w became a uvular r.
Before i, j became l.
Unstressed prefixes beginning with h or ɣ became silent and affected the voicing of the consonant that followed. Thus voiceless nasals were created. (ř could not at this time occur word-initially.)
The velar consonants h ɣ became the postalveolars š ž before the vowel i (which at this time was the only front vowel in the language).
The parent language u vowel was lowered to o. The diphthong uu became ou and ui became oi.
Certain vowel sequences separated by v lost it and lengthened the first vowel: iva ova ava became īa ōa ā. Meanwhile ivo ovo avo became īo ō ō and ivi ovi avi changed to ī ē ē. ivə ovə avə became ū ō ā. Sequences of this type that began with schwa remained, except for əvə which went to ə̄.
All diphthongs were monophthongized. The parent language au became ō, which had been its dominant allophone for quite a long time.
ou became ō,
oi and iu merged as ū.
Meanwhile ai became ē,
əi became e,
and əu became u.
The long schwa ə̄ became a normal schwa ə in all positions.
Labialized consonants were delabialized before back vowels.
The labialized consonants tʷ dʷ nʷ sʷ shifted to kʷ gʷ ŋʷ hʷ before a à ā á and schwa.
The Moonshine language at this point had the consonants /p b m w f pʲ mʲ t n s tʲ nʲ sʲ č ñ š ž j k ŋ h ɣ kʷ ŋʷ hʷ/ and the vowels /a ā e ē i ī o ō u ū ə/.
The cluster khʷ became a simple kʷ in all positions. (year 4100; contemporary with the earliest stages of Izda Mir) ... this is when Khulls merges in! : ) : ) : ) : ) : )
Clusters of any consonant plus a nasal simplified to single consonants: n disappeared and lengthened the previous vowel; s made the nasal voiceless, disappeared and lengthened the previous vowel; ʔ disappeared and raised the tone of the previous vowel.
Syllable-final ʔ n s were grammatically analogized to the consonants k ŋ h between two of the same vowel, which then became ʔ n s and deleted the final vowel.
A schwa following another vowel disappeared and made that vowel a long vowel.
Unaccented short schwas were lost. Because the language had a very active compounding system, this shift led to a steep increase in the number of types of allowable consonant clusters, as well as new consonants allowed in final position.
Syllable-final s after a vowel disappeared and made the preceding consonant voiceless and aspirated.
Syllable-final s after a consonant disappeared and made that consonant into an alveolar.
Unaccented e and o became a, often spelled as schwa or as ʕ, the vowel separator. If high tone, this was replaced by ʔ, the glottal stop. However, in neither case was this sound actually pronounced; it merely affected surrounding consonants for a short period of time after the shift.
Unaccented i and u came to spelled as palatalized/labialized consonants followed by a schwa, which had merged in with these. Thus the old glyphs for coarticulated consonants were revived, and stress was no longer fixed on the first syllable of the word even when the first vowel in the word wasn't a schwa. There was now only one orthographic unaccented vowel in the language: the schwa, which was now often unwritten. Unaccented i and u were written as part of the preceding consonant (the syllable was always open). Consonant clusters simplified according to the following rules:
Labialized consonants (kʷ ŋʷ hʷ) in final position (or at the beginning of a cluster) became plain and added a w glide to the preceding vowel.
Palatalized consonants (pʲ mʲ tʲ nʲ sʲ č ñ š ž) in final position or at the beginning of a cluster became plain and added a j glide to the preceding vowel.
Doubled consonants simplified to singles and caused the tone of the preceding vowel to become high.
Any consonant before a nasal disappeared and lengthened the preceding vowel. If the sound had been voiceless, it caused the tone of the preceding vowel to become high. If it had been voiced, it caused the tone of the preceding vowel to become low.
Any remaining ʷ trapped between consonants became u.
Any remaining ʲ trapped between consonants became i.
φ and β changed to w.
Aspirated consonants became voiceless.
In unaccented syllables, all vowels became short.

Nonpalatalized alveolar consonants became velarized (not shown in the orthography).
The Moonshine language at this point had the consonants
<tbody> </tbody>


p	b	f		m	mʰ	w
pʲ				mʲ	mʲʰ
t	d	s	z	n	nʰ
tʲ		sʲ		nʲ	nʲʰ
č		š	ž	ñ	ñʰ	j
k		h	ɣ	ŋ	ŋʰ
ʔ

and the vowels /a ā e ē i ī o ō u ū ə/.

An old method of deriving verbs from nouns by truncating the word after the first vowel, and lengthening that vowel if there was any missing info began to take over now. Although this was not a true sound change, it affected the general language more than any of the sound changes on the list.
o ò changed to schwa in unaccented position and a in accented position.
ō ó changed to o ò.
The vowel sequences aj ej ij oj uj became ē i ī i ī respectively.
The vowel sequences aw ew iw ow uw became ō u ū u ū respectively.
The consonant cluster řp became lp in all positions.
Following an accented syllable in a word of three or more syllables, all vowels became schwa.
Following an accented syllable in a word of two syllables or less, the consonant sequences ts ns ss changed to `ts z s respectively.
Following an accented syllable in word-final position, the syllables ka ke ki ko ku became ʔ ʔč ʔč ʔt ʔt. Before another consonant, they all became ʔ.
All consonant clusters except those beginning with s became homorganic; the s- clusters did not retain any distinction based on point of articulation but instead shifted the s- to š except before another s.
The cluster sw (spelled sbʷ) became a bilabial v in all positions.
sb shifted to žb.
Before front vowels, k g ŋ shifted to č ǯ ñ.
Between two unstressed vowels, all labial consonants except rounded bilabials disappeared unless a string of three vowels would be created.
Before a vowel, unaccented ə changed to u, which then shifted to the labial glide w in syllable-initial position and otherwise created a labialized consonant. (year 5800; same as 26 in Izda Mir)
Before a vowel, unaccented a changed to i ("the karaoke shift"), which then shifted to the palatal glide j in syllable-initial position and otherwise created a palatalized consonant. Like the new labialized consonants, palatalized consonants could occur only before a vowel, but in orthography they could occur before other consonants because they were used to denote whole unstressed syllables. However, the only vowel allowed in these unstressed syllables was the epenthetic schwa, and during the following sound changes this schwa often disappeared.
The labials pʲ bʲ mʲ became the labiodentals ṗ ḅ ṃ in all positions.
The dentals fʲ vʲ changed to f v before vowels, but to fĭ vĭ elsewhere.
The alveolars tʲ dʲ sʲ zʲ nʲ became the dentals ṭ ḍ ṣ ẓ ṇ in all positions. lʲ became j and řʲ became ř.
The dorsals kʲ hʲ rʲ became the palatals č š j in all positions.
The labialized postalveolar consonants čʷ ǯʷ šʷ žʷ ñʷ became delabialized.
The palatal consonants č ǯ š ž ñ became c ʒ s z n in all positions.
The rounded labials pʷ bʷ mʷ fʷ vʷ became the plain labials pŭ bŭ mŭ fŭ vŭ before a consonant.
The labialized alveolars tʷ dʷ sʷ zʷ nʷ řʷ became plain alveolars t d s z n ř in all positions.
Before a vowel, lʷ became w, but elsewhere it changed to lŭ.
The dorsals kʷ hʷ rʷ became w before a consonant, while also lengthening the preceding vowel.
The labiodentals ṗ ḅ ṃʰ ṃ and the dentals ṭ ḍ ṇʰ ṇ became c ʒ ns nz in word-final position.
The dentals ṗ ḅ ṃʰ ṃ ṭ ḍ ṇʰ ṇ became the affricates pf bv mf mv tṣ dẓ nṣ nẓ, but there was no change in spelling.
The affricates pf bv mf mv tṣ dẓ nṣ nẓ became f v f v ṣ ẓ ṣ ẓ in initial position and after a consonant.
Epenthetic schwas after previously labialized and palatalized consonants disappeared.
Nasals disappeared before a fricative.
The affricates mbʷ mb mḅ nḍ nd nǯ ŋg shifted to bʷ b ḅ ẓ ʒ ǯ g in all positions. If the preceding vowel had been long, it became short.
The affricates mpʷ mp mṗ nṭ nt nč ŋk shifted to pʷ p ṗ ẓ ʒ ǯ g in all positions. If the preceding vowel had been long, it became short.
Unstressed ər shifted to o.
š before a nasal changed to ž and the nasal changed into a voiced stop.
The velar stops k g were fronted to č ǯ unless they occurred in a cluster after another consonant and before a o u.
Labialization was lost on all consonants.
The clusters šb and bš were devoiced to šp and pš respectively.
The clusters žp and pž became žb and bž respectively.
Velar stops in accented syllables before another syllable beginning in a velar were fronted to postalveolar affricates before front vowels, and otherwise to alveolar stops.
Alveolar stops in accented syllables before another syllable beginning in an alveolar became postalveolar affricates.
A bilabial sound in an accented syllable before a syllable beginning in a labiodental sound became labiodental. A labiodental sound in an accented syllable before a syllable beginning in a bilabial became bilabial.
Sonority hierarchy shifts: #hp ---> #kf̥ etc
After a vowel, the consonant clusters ṿt ṿd merged as d. If after /u/ or /o/, that vowel became long.
After a vowel, the consonant clusters gč gǯ (g is ɣ) changed to ġ (a voiced velar stop).


p	b	fʷ	vʷ	m	mʰ	w
ṗ	ḅ	f	v	ṃ	ṃʰ
t	d	s	z	n	nʰ
ṭ	ḍ	ṣ	ẓ	ṇ	ṇʰ
č	ǯ	š	ž	ñ	ñʰ	j
k	g	h	ɣ	ŋ	ŋʰ
ʔ

and the vowels /a ā e ē i ī o ō u ū ə/.

The alphabet now consisted of the consonants /p b ṗ ḅ f v m mʰ w t ṭ d ḍ s z ṣ ẓ n nʰ š ž k g ŋ ŋʰ h x l ř j r/ and the vowels /a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ à è ì ò ù ə̀ á é í ó ú ə́/.

This is considered to be the state of classical Moonshine, also known as Rúló.

Rúló to Xykhasl (year 12850 AD)

Intervocalically, the dental consonants ṗ ḅ ṭ ḍ came to be written as pf bv tṣ dẓ, and to be treated as consonant clusters.
In word-initial position and after another consonant they became the plain fricatives f v ṣ ẓ.
The vowel /u/ came to be spelled /ū/; this was a spelling change rather than a phonetic one.
In bisyllabic roots, if the vowel in the second syllable was rounded, the vowels in the first syllable changed from /a e i o ū ə/ to /â ū y ô y u/, where â spells the SAMPA sound Q, ū spells u:, ô spells u:, and y spells y.
If the vowel in the second syllable was /i/, then /o ū/ in the first syllable changed to /oj ūj/.
High tone vowels came to be distinguished primarily by being lax rather than by being of high pitch. Allophonic pitch distinctions began to arise, and soon tone had been completely replaced by laxness.
Consonant clusters and final consonants, aside from c ʒ č ǯ were simplified: any /p/ or /š/ at the end of a syllable disappeared and made the preceding vowel into a lax vowel.
(although in the case of žb and šp, the ž and š survived and the labials didn't). Double consonants and affricates simplified to singles and also laxed the preceding vowel. Final /m/ disappeared with no effect, although it began to spread as an allophone to places in which it had never been before. Voiceless nasals also laxed the preceding vowel.
The dental fricatives f v changed to ṣ ẓ at the beginning of a word and between vowels.
The postalveolar affricates č ǯ became the fricatives š ž in all positions.
The alveolar stops t d and the affricates c ʒ merged as č ǯ before front vowels. In other positions they remained the same.
In clusters the dental fricatives ṣ ẓ became the alveolar stops t d.
All unstressed short vowels were reduced to the set /ă ĭ u ə/. If they had been lax, they also laxed the preceding vowel.
After a vowel, wĭ changed to j,
sĭ changed to š,
and kĭ and tĭ coalesced as tš.
Unaccented long vowels and diphthongs were reduced to the monophthongs a e i o u y.
The remaining long vowels ā ē ī ō ū ȳ ə̄ changed to a aj i aw ū y ə. The letter ū was not a true long vowel any longer, but only a higher and clearer version of u.
All final vowels in bisyllabic roots were deleted. If the vowel deleted was ĭ, the vowels in the first syllable changed from /a à è ì ə/ to /aj àj e i ĭ/. In compound words and certain inflected forms, the second vowel in the word was deleted if the resulting consonant cluster was acceptable ("the Debra shift"). If the second vowel occurred between two labial consonants, the first labial consonant was deleted and the second was metathesized so that it took the place of the first. Then the place of articulation of that consonant changed to match the vowel it occurred next to, as the vowel was deleted.
u ù became fronted to mid vowels but there was no change in spelling. All roots that came from Rúló had been either one or two syllables. With this sound shift they nearly all came to be one syllable, although due to changes in grammar they were almost always used with a suffix containing a vowel and thus adding a syllable. That is to say, the suffixes from the old monosyllables were applied to these new monosyllables, making the old suffixes and infixes for bisyllables obsolete.
The dental fricatives ṣ ẓ changed back to f v in all positions.
The labiodental fricatives f v became h x in word-initial position before a back vowel and between a back vowel and another vowel of any type;
In clusters the labiodental fricatives f v became p b.
Before the front vowels e è i ì û ú, the velar stops k and g were fronted to the postalveolar affricates č and ǯ, which were considered single phonemes rather than clusters.
At the end of a closed syllable the bilabial stop b came to be pronounced as /ə/, with a common allophone of [w]; however there was no change in the native spelling.
At the end of a closed syllable the bilabial stop p came to be pronounced as [ʔ], however there was no change in the native spelling. That is, the ligatures of vowel + p, which are transliterated with grave accents, continued to be used.
The labiodental fricatives f v became the bilabial stops p b in all positions, although at the end of a few words they disappeared completely. They were spelled with the letters for the "hard" p b because in some writings the letters for the ordinary p b were used for /? ə/.
Voiced stops became prenasalized after a tense vowel; lax vowels before voiced stops became allophonically tense but did not gain prenasalization.
The lax/tense distinction in vowels disappeared, leaving vowel quality alone to distinguish them and meaning that glottal stops after certain vowels were no longer pronounced. However, the changes that the earlier system had inflicted on the consonants still remained.
A chain shift occurred: the old vowel ì came to be pronounced as e, meaning that the old vowel e came to be pronounced as ɛ, which caused the old vowel è to become pronounced as a, which caused the old vowel a to become pronounced as a back ɑ. Meanwhile a similar shift occurred in the back vowels: o became ɔ, which caused ò to become a low back ɒ. Now, only roundedness and frontness distinguished the two forms of o and a; the heights were the same.

Classical-Era Changes:
In some idiolects, a religious taboo forbade the pronunciation of the phonemes k g except when used for the names of the forces of good and evil; in other contexts they shifted to /q G/.
Most speakers began to merge the new q G phonemes with h x.
Roundedness disappeared on o ò, thus leaving only frontness to distinguish them from a à.
Unstressed u became a true schwa. The script was now written with u as the inherent vowel (previously it was schwa).
o ò merged with a à.
The low vowel a rounded and moved to the back position and à became low to replace it.

The alphabet now consisted of the consonants /p b š ž m w t d s z n j c ʒ č ǯ k g h x ŋ r l ř/ and the vowels /@ i e E a A O o u y/.
The spelling of the vowels was as such:

<tbody> </tbody>
ə i e ɛ a ɑ ɔ o u y

u i ì e è o a â ô û

o could also be spelled à, and a could also be spelled ò. This is considered to be the state of classical Laveti Moonshine.

Post-Classical Changes:
Letters with inherent vowels sometimes appeared as the onset of a stressed syllable (mostly in Bloppabop loans, but in a few native words also). Previously the u ones were pronounced with /w/, but that disappeared, and as it did so the ones with a became velarised and in some cases (especially velars) also labialized.

Tapilula to Late Andanese (4178)

Tapilula inherited from Standard Animal the phonology p b m f fʷ w t d n s l j k ŋ ɣ h q ʔ a i u, where ʔ represents a glottal stop. All syllables were open and all consonants could occur in all positions. There was a variable stress accent distinguishing three tones (à ā á) on the stressed syllable, although phonemically there were really only two tones, high and low, on both syllables: the three-tone system was brought up in sandhi only. For final stress ther pattern is: Low-Low = Low / High-Low = Med / Low-High = High / High-High = High and for initial stress Low-Low = Low / High-Low = Med / Low-High = High / High-High = High (that is, it was the same.) Med was originally "falling" , High "rising". Note that this should be about 85 changes to bring it in line with its neighbors! The Tapilula name for Andanese was Sáŋəhʷṅe.

Aspiration disappeared on all consonants. (?)
The accent pattern involved in certain infixes with accented schwa switched to favor the following vowel. e.g. ăpo "field", apə̀ho "field (possessive) became ăpo apəhò.
The "labial" vowel y (like /u/ but with flat lips) disappeared, syllabified nearby consonants or turned to i if the nearby consonants were not possible to become syllabic. Thus new aspirated consonants were created: pʰ tʰ kʰ, as well as others.
The labial stops p b both changed to ʕʷ except if they were: 1) After an accented or high-tone vowel (but not before); 2) In a consonant cluster of any kind; or 3) In a monosyllabic word.
The labial nasal m changed to ṿ when it preceded a vowel followed by a labial consonant (including /w/). This change did not apply to the syllabic ṁ.
The alveolar voiceless stop t became k except if it was: 1) After an accented or high-tone vowel (but not before); 2) In a consonant cluster of any kind; or 3) In a monosyllabic word.
The labial approximants ʕʷ hʷ changed to g h when it preceded a vowel followed by a labial consonant (including /w/), and changed the pitch of the following vowel to high (3). This is sometimes spelled ǵ h́. (this was originaly near FAHAH but was moved up to match Ukieipi's version).
The voiceless fricative s, when it occurred in consonant clusters, changed to h (aspiration).
The glottalized stop k̩ changed to a uvular q in all positions.
The voiced stops b d ġ became voiceless. The new ṿ sound became a voiceless f.
The velar nasal ŋ changed to n in all positions. (?)
The voiceless fricative s, where it remained, changed to z.
Instances of u before another vowel changed to w and this further changed into a labialized consonant if there was a consonant before it. This happened even if it was an accented syllable. This was spelled "v" rather than "w". However, words like kuùu "urine" ---> kʷuu rather than kuvu.
This was the stage of Old Andanese (year 1900), the same date as Ukieipi. It was mostly confiend to Fox Island but some settlements had begun on the North peninsula.
The voiced fricative z became g in all positions, and caused the tone of the following vowel to become low (1). This is sometimes spelled g̀.
Adabawa ---> kʷ. pʷ mʷ ---> plain labials /p m/.
ăe àe ---> ĕ è (e.g. in păe "hip" ---> pĕ).
This is Late Old Andanese (2200 or so).
Labialized stops pʷ tʷ kʷ all changed to p.
The labial fricative f changed to h in all positions, and changed the pitch of the following vowel to high (3). This is sometimes spelled h́.
All remaining occurrences of the labial approximant ʕʷ changed to l. (CHANGE ID FAHAH)
The uvular stop q changed to the glottal stop ʔ unconditionally.
"Old Andanese" was year 3300.
Note that there is no /s/ sound anymore!!
The mid vowels e o changed to i u in all positions.
Nasalized vowels changed fricatives on either side of them into nasals. Thus maɣĩ "soap" > maŋi, nãɣi "comb" > naŋi.
Nasalized vowels changed stops after them (but not before) into nasals. Thus tãpa "vineyard" > tama.
Nasalization disappeared everywhere.
Tones were eliminated except in syllables with no consonants.
Tones were eliminated. Andanese now had only 9 consonants, 3 vowels, and no tones, and was entirely CV, thus making it the most phonologically simple language in the world.
The voiced pharyngeal fricative ʕ changed to ŋ in "some" positions.

Pre-Proto-Tapilula to POP3 (4000 BC)

Original phonology:

Pre-Proto-Tapilula, also known as Paleo-Southeast Laban, had 18 consonants ( p b m w ṭ ḍ ṇ ḷ t d n l r j k ġ ŋ h ) and 4 vowels, a i u ə (schwa is spelled {y}).

V was really a spread-labial w, not actually /v/. Nor was it wʲ or jʷ. ɰ is silent, but separates vowels so that they arent dip[hthongs, and does have a sound between 2 identical vowels.

The voiced velar sounds g ġ changed to ž before /i/, v before /u/, and disappeared otherwise.
The voiceless sound h changed to š before /i/, f before /u/, and disappeared otherwise.
Are the above f/v distinct from rounded labials?? Or labiodentals?
f > v?
The labiodental fricatives f v changed to p b.
hʷ became h. (???)
The dental sounds ṭ ṇ ḷ ḍ all coalesced as v (true v this time).
All stops became voiceless.
The dental fricative v turned into a voiced bilabial stop b. This was thus the only voiced stop in the language.

Silatibarra to Proto-Outer Poswob (1583)

Original phonology:

pʷ mʷ w bʷ ...... hʷ ..... m: ṇ: n: ŋ: ..... voiceless nasals????
pʲ mʲ v bʲ
ṭ ṇ ḷ ḍ
t n l d s r
tl nl dl sl
k ŋ ɰ ġ h

V was really a spread-labial w, not actually /v/. Nor was it wʲ or jʷ. ɰ is silent, but separates vowels so that they arent dip[hthongs, and does have a sound between 2 identical vowels.

Tones became raised before voiceless consonants: ă --> à; à --> á. Note that the symbols are used slightly differently here from their usage in other lanmguages. In the future, â is low tone (but usually unmarked); ă or à is medium tone; á is high tone.
All prefixes came to have low tone, regardless of what consonant was before them.
The vowels a e i became e i i whenever not held down by other vowels, or by labialization.
~~The spread-labial sounds pʲ mʲ v bʲ all coalesced as v (true v this time).~~
The glottal fricative h became š when touching a front vowel (/e i/).
Rounded labials became plain labials in all words. hʷ became h.
The schwa vowel disappeared in all possible syllables, unless accented.
The dental sounds ṭ ṇ ḷ ḍ all coalesced as v (true v this time).
Any remaining schwa became a.
All stops became voiceless.
The dental fricative v turned into a voiced bilabial stop b. This was thus the only voiced stop in the language.
The laterals tl nl became plain t n. (This was near the end of the time spent near Tapilula).
"Suppressed" tones were released.
Stops became allophonically voiced after a low tone. Thus the distinction between /b/ and voiced /p/ was muddled.
Stops became allophonically geminated after a high tone. (????)

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Notes

Languages of Teppala: Difference between revisions

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Contents

Historical distribution of Teppalan languages

Traits common to all Teppalan languages

Traits common to most Teppalan languages

Phonology

Grammar

Gender

Structure of words

Parts of speech

List of sound changes

See also

Notes

Navigation menu

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@@ Line 40: / Line 40: @@
 *Pronouns play only a minor role in the language, and some languages lack pronouns altogether, instead using nouns and verbs with person markers.
 *Person markers on nouns, denoting their possessor, are common. Languages that lose this system often redevelop it from grammatically unrelated words later on.
+==List of sound changes==
+<!-- saved from url=(0054)file://alxon/Users/Soap/Documents/blop2/pabappa28.html -->
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+<title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title><title>Sound Changes</title></head><body topmargin="0" leftmargin="0" text="#000000" vlink="#ff0000" alink="#00ffff" bgcolor="#ffe0e0" link="#ff0000" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0">
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tbody><tr>
+<td bgcolor="#ffffff">
+<p class="topic">
+<big><big><font color="#ff0000">
+S</font></big><font color="#ff0000">OUND
+<big>C</big>HANGES
+</font>
+</big></p>
+<!-- insert 4girls banner -->
+<big><br><br><br><br>
+</big><table><tbody><tr><td width="100%">
+<!------ MAIN CONTENT GOES HERE   --->
+<!------ MAIN CONTENT GOES HERE   --->
+<!------ MAIN CONTENT GOES HERE   --->
+<!------ MAIN CONTENT GOES HERE   --->
+<!------ MAIN CONTENT GOES HERE   --->
+<!------ MAIN CONTENT GOES HERE   --->
+<!------ MAIN CONTENT GOES HERE   --->
+<table width="100%" cellspacing="0">
+<tbody><tr>
+<td valign="top" width="24" nowrap="nowrap">
+</td>
+<td>
+<!------ first language   --->
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="15"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Mapi (14000 BC) to SE Laban (year8000 BC)
+</p>
+The Mapi language started out with 11 consonants: /p m t n s l r k ŋ x h/, and 4 vowels: /a i u ə/.  The /ə/, however, was not fully independent from /i/.  Syllables could either be open (the vast majority) or end in /n/.  The /n/ bundles with consonants to make prenasalized stops, but can also occur at the end of a word or before a vowel.  There are also [e] and [o], diphrhongs which are often pronounced as monophthongs but are not included as regular vowels because they cannot occur before the syllable-final /n/.
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  /e/ &gt; /je/ and /o/ &gt; /wo/ unless the opposite glide is present already.  MAYBHE NOIT!!!!! taipa  Note that effectively /i/ was /ji/ and /u/ was /wu/ unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Velar consonants become palatalized before /i/ (whetther as a vowerl or a palatal glide).  Thus <b>k ŋ x</b> to <em>ć ń ś</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Labial consonants defgy palatalization, and return to normal.  Thus effectively labial consonants turned a foloowing /i/ into /ə/.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    Alveolar consonants become palatalized before /i/  (whetther as a vowerl or a palatal glide).  Thus <b>t n s l r</b> to <em>č ñ š ł ř</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Prenasalized stops become true plain voiced stops: <b>mp nt nč nć ŋk</b> to <em>b d ǯ ǵ ġ</em>.  ǵ can be spelled gʲ.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The alveolar approximant <b>l</b> dentalized to <em>ḷ</em>. (was later)
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The voiced affricates <b>ǯ ǵ</b> become <em>j</em> unconditionallyu. (spelled /y/).
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The voiced stop <b>d</b> became <em>l</em> (alveolar).
+</li><li>&nbsp;    Labial consonants sucked up the vowel /ə/ after them, whether it was a glide or a full vweol.  Thus consonant clusters like /pk/ were suddenly created.
+</li><li>&nbsp;       The glottal fricatve <b>h</b> disappeared unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Word-final primordial /n/ becaomes /ŋ/.  If before a vowel it turns into /ń/ if before /i/ (or /j/), else also /ŋ/.MAYBE LATER!!!!
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The vowel /ə/ disappeared in most positions.  MAYBE LATER!!!!
+</li><li>&nbsp;    Word-final voiced stops became nasals.MAYBE LATER!!!!
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The sequences <b>ai əi</b> becomes <em>e</em>, and <b>au əu</b> become <em>o</em>.  This is a true /e/, not /je/.  This /ai/ is always from a deleted consonant, <s>because the original /ai/ had already changed to /je/.</s>
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The palatal consonants <b>ć ś ń</b> became the dentals <em>ṭ ṣ ṇ</em> unconditiojnallly!!!!!!
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The vowel /e/ becomes /i/ in all posiotions, thus creating nonpal consonants before /i/.  Thus /si/ is always from /sampi/ etc.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The vowel /o/ became /a/ in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Schwa was deleted.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    Labial consonants weaken interovcallicaly: /p/ becomes /f/, /b/ becomes /w/.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The postaolveolar <b>ř</b> becomes retoflex, but spelling stays the same.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Postalveolar consonants (except /ř/) trapped in final psotions become plauin alveolars: <b>č š ñ ł</b> become <em>t s n l</em>.  Note that there were no longer any palatals in the language.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The labial approximant /w/ disappeared unconditionally.  Thus contuinuing /w/ is always from /u/ plus a hiatus.  (This was actually /uw/ anyway; othgerwise even the original /u/ would have collapsed. Thus /w/ is almost always from /ump/. )
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Alveolar consonants before /j/ become postalveolars.  Thus <b>t n s r</b> (there was no plain /l/) become <em>č ñ š ř</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Dental consonants before /j/ become pstalveolars agaub.  Thus <b>ṭ ṇ ṣ ḷ</b> to <em>č ñ š ł</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Postavleolars become tretroflex???
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li></ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<!-- end --->
+<!------ NEXT language   --->
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="15"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+SE Laban (c. 8000 BC) to POP3 (year 3770 BC)
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The dental consonants <b>ṭ ṇ ṣ ḷ</b> became the labiodentals <em>f v f v</em> (fricatives, not stops), although they had stops as allophones in some positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  True bilabials <b>p m f</b> became rounded bilabials <em>pʷ mʷ fʷ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The clusters <b>pʷf mʷf</b> became <em>pfʷ mfʷ</em> (rounded on both).  Later this was seen as just pʷ mhʷ.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Syllable-final <b>uŋ</b> became <em>um</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The alveolar consonants <b>t n s l</b> became the dentals <em>ṣ ẓ ṣ ḷ</em>, and as above the fricatives could be stops in some positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The bilabial approximant <b>w</b> became <em>ġʷ</em>. Note that there was as yet no corresponding plain ġ.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The retroflex/postalveolar consonants <b>t` n` s` l` r`</b> all became plain alveolars <em>t n s l r</em> unconditionally.  R&gt;w?
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The velar consonants <b>k ŋ h</b> became the palatals <em>č ñ š</em> except before the back vowel /u/.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The rounded bilabial fricative <b>fʷ</b> came to be pronounced as <em>hʷ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   <s>The vowel <b>a</b> next to a dental became <em>ä</em> ("ae" as in Peyack).</s>
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The schwa vowel <b>ə</b> became <em>e</em> when NOT adjacent to a dental.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The low vowel <b>a</b> became <em>ä</em> when NOT adjacent to a dental. ("ae" as in Peyack).
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced fricatives <b>v ẓ</b> became stops <em>b d</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The dental fricative <b>ṣ</b> became a harsh-voiced <em>ś</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Dentals in syllable-final position became alveolar unless before another dental consonant.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The voiced stop <b>ġʷ</b> became <em>bʷ</em> before a rounded vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The vowel <b>u</b> became <em>ə</em> (a schwa) unconditionally.  Often spelled "e".
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The vowel <b>ə</b> disappeared in initial position, creating glottalized nasals.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The vowel <b>a</b> became <em>â</em> (a-ring) adjacent to a rounded consonant in either direction.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The vowels <b>ə e</b> both became <em>o</em> adjacent to a rounded consonant in either condition.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Labialization was lost on all consonants: <b>pʷ bʷ mʷ hʷ ġʷ</b> became <em>p b m h ġ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The velars <b>h ġ</b> became <em>š ǯ</em> before a front vowel.  (Looks like the other Tapiulula).
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The velars <b>h ġ</b> disappeared.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The harsh-voiced <b>ś</b> became <em>h</em> except at the end of a syllable where it bcame <em>s</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The voiced sounds <b>b d ǯ</b> became the voiceless sounds <em>p t č</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li></ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<!-- end --->
+<!------ second language   --->
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="15"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+SE Laban (c. 8000 BC) to Pre-Proto-Tapilula (year 3770 BC)
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  č &gt; š (retroflex, not postalveolar)
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  (pre-Silatibarra changes: t`a &gt; t`e &gt; te, etc)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  retroflex <b>r`</b> changed to <em>g</em> (a fricatve) before a vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  retroflex <b>r`</b> disappears, changing to a schwa vowel <em>e</em> if after a vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Geminate nasals <b>mm ṇṇ nn n`n` ŋŋ</b> became nasal + stop: <em>mb ṇḍ nd n`d` ŋġ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Voiceless stop + nasal became a simple voiced stop: <b>pm ṭṇ tn t`n` kŋ</b> into <em>b ḍ d d` ġ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Word-initial <b>ř</b> became  <em>d</em>.  Word-initial <b>w</b> became <em>b</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Adjacent to a retroflex consonant, in either direction, the vowel <b>a</b> changed into <em>e</em> ( a schwa).
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiceless stops <b>p t k </b> between vowels became <em>b d ġ</em>. TIME?????
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiceless fricatives have merged out by thuis time.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The sequence <b>gi</b> before a vowel became <em>ž</em> (even if accented, due to analogy).
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Does /s/ survive as /h/ ?  Or is it only double fricatives that survive?
+</li><li>&nbsp;  i....u &gt; i...e; u...i &gt; u....e .
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Final schwa was deleted.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  A few sequences, like abi&gt; au, occcuirred here. (only if the /a/ was stressed).
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Voiced fricatives before a vowel were smeared out: <b>v</b> changed all preceding vowels into /u/; <b>ž</b> changed only /e/ &gt; /i/; <b>g</b> disappeared with no effect on the preceding vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Gemionates weree simplified.  Thus voiceless interovolcalic stops were created.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li></ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<!-- end --->
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="15"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Pre-Tapilula (3770 BC) to Tapilula ( year 500 )</p>
+<p class="body">
+</p><p class="body">
+	The original dialect of Pre-Tapilula (so called because it had no other 	descendants), spoken around 3770 BC,
+	 had 18 consonants (<em>  p b m w ṭ ḍ ṇ ḷ t d n l r j k ġ ŋ h</em>&nbsp;&nbsp; ) and
+vowels, <em>a i u ə</em> (schwa is spelled {y}).  Most roots had 2 syllables, with fairly free phonotactis.  But the i..u and u..i patterns so common in hte language's descendants were rare, essentially always being from compounds.
+	Nasals could be syllabic
+	both after consonants and after other vowels.&nbsp; The apostrophe is a
+	dipthong separator which was considered by the language to be a consonant.
+	No tones.&nbsp; Vowel sequences were common, in many ways resembling
+	Bābākiam except for the lack of contrasts between long vowels and double
+	vowels.&nbsp; Thus ā = aa, etc.</p><p class="body">
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  (pre-Silatibarra changes: t`a &gt; t`e &gt; te, etc)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Note that far back in the past, nn &gt; nd, hence explaining why there is no /nn/. Also tn &gt; d. In a few compounds these rulse still apply by analogy.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Word-initial <b>ř</b> became  <em>d</em> ??
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Before a vowel, the sequences <b>ei eu</b> (pronounced /əj əw/) changed into <em>i u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The vowel <b>e</b> became <em>u</em> before a labial in a closed syllable.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Note a previous sound change around 5000 BC had occurred which removed all fricatives other than /h/.  This had involved the change of neutral fricatives (possibly /g h/) into labials before /u/ and palatals before /i/.  Thus, for  example, while /v/ could occur before any vowel, it was commonest before /u/, and /ž/ was commonest before /i/.  Later, though, these fricatives died out, changing the vowels before them also into /i/ and /u/.  Thus double-vowel sequences of /ii/ and /uu/ were common. These here pulled up into /ji/ and /wu/ sequences.  (/v/ pulled up all; /ž/ perhaps only /ə/.)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Palatalized alveolars change: /tʲ dʲ nʲ lʲ rʲ/ into /š ž ñ ź ź/.  Note that this did not affect dentals.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Paltalized velars change: /kʲ ġʲ ŋʲ hʲ/ into /š ž ñ š/.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp; The patalaized dental stop ḍʲ cxhanged into ž.  This did not affect the voiceless form.  Paltalized ṇʲ also &gt; ñ.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The sequences <b>iŋ eŋ uŋ</b>, in syllable-final position, became lowered (allophonically at first) to <em>ëŋ aŋ oŋ</em>.  This /ë/ is the true /e/, not a schwa.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Syllable-final stops (<b>p ṭ t k</b>) changed into <em>ʔ</em>, which itself was generally siulent except for changing the tone of the syllable to hihgh.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The sequences /wi/ and /ju/, before another a vowel, became /w/.  (when???)
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Syllable-initial clusters such as <b>bl pl</b> changed into pharyngealized consonants such as <em>bʕ pʕ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Syllable final /ŋ/ changed into a nasalaized vowel. Howeverr syllabic /ŋ̇/ after a voerl rtemains.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  DEPALATALIZATION!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! /j/ was changed to /ʕ/ in all positions.   This includes depalatalization of palatalized consonants, although for the meantime, this resulted in pharyngealized consonants such as /pʕ bʕ ṭʕ/ rather than plai nones.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  ....Between vowels, /ʕ/ soon became /'/, a silent diphthong separator.   The actual new consonants created were /pʕ bʕ mʕ ṭʕ ṇʕ/, as the others had already changed into fricatives.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  ........ /ʕ/ disappeared after a fricative.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The phrayngealized stops /pʕ bʕ mʕ ṭʕ ṇʕ/ remained for the time being.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Importantly, the apalatal nasal /ñ/ changed to /ŋ/, not a simple alveolar.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp; sometimes there wad a ʕ, e.g. pj &gt; pʕ, which stopped aspiration  later.
+</li><li>&nbsp; ....... š &gt; s
+</li><li>&nbsp; ....... ž ź &gt; j (a new /j/ unaffected by othger chabnges)
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Palatalized labials stay labial, unaffected by this change even in vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The vowel sequences <b>ae ea</b> changed to <em>au ua</em>.  <b>ei</b> became <em>ui</em> (/wi/).
+</li><li>&nbsp;    An <b>h</b> after an accented vowel
+metathesized and created an aspirated consonant at the beginning of the
+word, and leaving a gap in between the other two vowels.  Note that voiceless stops were always aspirated, so this shift
+did not change them.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    /h/ was removed in all positions (?), only to reappear later.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The sequene /ua/ changed to /wo/, at least after a consonant.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   An <b>ʔ</b> before an accented vowel
+disappeared, unless the previous syllable began with a voiceless stop,
+in which case it created a glottalized stop there.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The vowel sequences <b>ai au</b> changed to <em>e o</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp; A schwa in an unaccented syllable after an accented /e/ or /o/ changed to match that vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Some double schwa words also changed, e.g. mehe &gt; moho "fire".
+</li><li>&nbsp;    All voiceless stops except the glottalized ones became aspirated.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Labialized velars became rounded labials.  e.g. /kw/ &gt; /pw/, etc.  <s>BUT THEN HOW DOES ḍw &gt; b??? THIS SHOULD BE EARLIER!@!!</s>
+</li><li>&nbsp; Labialized dentals became rounded labials.  e.g. /ṭw/ &gt; /pw/.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Naslaized vowerls caused the stops oreceing them to become deaspirated.  THis afffects /m/ as well.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    Aspirated voiced stops became voiceless fricatives.  Plain voiced stops became voiced fricatives.&nbsp;
+	THere may also be some phar tones that make these voiced.</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   All voiced fricatives merged as <em>g</em> (pronounced /ɣ/).  Possibly sometimes /l/ for clusters.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   All voiceless fricatives merged as <em>h</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;    Aspiration disappeared on approximants, except for <b>wʰ</b> which became <em>fʷ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+	THere may also be some phar tones that make these voiced.</li><li>&nbsp;   The alveolar flap <b>r</b> became the palatal approximant <em>j</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  If final syllable had a high tone, the penultimate syllable (which was the accented one) became low tone.  This is the source of almost all low tones in accented syllables. However, a few LOW+LOW words did exist.  On the other hand, HIGH+HIGH did not exist, even if two syllables in a row had ended with stops, because this rule would automatically change that pattern into LOW+HIGH.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Other final nasals also change into nasal vowel markers, thus changing syllable weight.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The labial nasal <b>m</b> became <em>mʰ</em> before a labial? (essentially a preview of Andanese).  This did not affect /mʕ/.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The glottalized stops <b>pʕ ṭʕ kʕ</b> changed to <em>b ḍ ḳ</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp;<s> The voiceless stops <b>p t</b> became <em>b d</em> in all positions unless another voiceless consonant was adjacent (even if over a vowel).
+</s>
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Rounded labials became plain.  Thus the language now had an abundance of labial consonants, especially stops, from the collision of most consonants followed by /w/.  Labialized alveolar consonants still remained, however, as did the /hʷ/ that was distinct from the /f/.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  All dental consontants became alveolar.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li></ol>
+<p></p>
+Thus Tapilula had the consonants <em>p</em> <span class="style1">b m f t d n l
+	tʷ dʷ nʷ k h g hʷ j w</span> and the vowels <em>a e i o u y</em>.&nbsp;  All syllables were open and all consonants could occur in all positions.  There was a variable stress accent.  (Five vowels, really.)
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="50"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="body">
+<br><br>
+</p>
+ </td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="100"></td><td>
+	&nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<p class="topic">
+</p>
+<p class="topic">
+</p>
+<p class="topic">
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+</p>
+<div align="bottom">
+</div> </td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="65"></td><td>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="topic">
+Tapilula to Ukieipi (year 1900)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+Tapilula inherited from Standard Animal the phonology <em>p b m f fʷ w t d n s l j k ŋ ɣ h q ʔ a i u</em>, where <em>ʔ</em>
+represents a glottal stop. All syllables were open and all consonants
+could occur in all positions. There was a variable stress accent
+distinguishing three tones (<em>à ā á</em>) on the stressed syllable, although phonemically
+there were really only two tones, high and low, on both syllables: the three-tone system
+was brought up in sandhi only.  For initial stress the pattern is:
+Low-Low = Low /
+High-Low = High /
+Low-High = Med /
+and for final stress ther pattern is:
+Low-Low = Low /
+High-Low = Med /
+Low-High = High /
+High-High = High
+<s>(that is, it was the same.)  ???Med was originally "falling"
+, High "rising".</s>  CHANGED JUN 22 2012
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;   The aspirated velar stop <b>kʰ</b> became <em>tš</em> before the vowel <em>i</em>.  If another vowel followed, the /i/ disappeared.  This happened even if the /i/ was accented ... e.g. takʰìa &gt; tačă.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The voiced stops <b>b d</b> became <em>v ð</em> in all positions (not labialized).
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The uvular stop <b>q</b> became <em>k</em> (not aspirated) in all positions.  (Still distinguished in spelling because it patterned as a "high" consonant, unlike the low {k}.
+  </li><li>&nbsp;     In word-initial position before another vowel and medially between two other vowels, the bare vowels <b>i u</b> changed to <em>j w</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The voiced fricative <b>v</b> changed to <em>ð</em> in all positions.  <b>f</b> (not labialized) changed to <em>ṣ</em> (/þ/).
+</li><li>&nbsp;    When a "velar" consonant (<b>k ŋ h ɣ l</b>) followed an
+accented high tone vowel and the following vowel was the same, that following
+vowel disappeared, leaving a closed syllable. (Initial-stress
+"diphthongs" metathesized; e.g. <b>ūhi</b> became <em>ūih</em> and <b>āku</b> became <em>āuk</em>.)  If the next syllable had begun with a vowel, a <em>ʡ</em> (voiced pharyngeal fricative) was added there.  These new syllables were all high tone, and were the only closed syllables in the language. Thus the high tone came to be associated with closed syllables.  "l" had been considered a velar consonant because of certain distribution patterns dating from Standard Animal, even though it was not a velarized l.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The sequence <b>hk</b> became <em>kʰ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The diphthongs <b>ùu</b> and <b>ìi</b> changed to <em>əu</em> and <em>əi</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The diphthongs <b>ùi</b> and <b>ìu</b> changed to <em>ə</em> unless another vowel followed.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   <s>The diphthongs <b>àa èa ìa òa ùa</b> became <em>ā ē ī ō ū</em>.</s>
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Word-final glottal stops were deleted, leaving only their influence on tone.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The fricative <b>ðʰ</b>, which had arisen from the sequences ðh and hð, changed to <em>ṣ</em>.  Thus <b>fʷuhði</b> "mountain" became <em>fʷuṣi</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The fricative <b>ṣ</b> (/þ/) changed to <em>s</em>.  Thus broadly speaking the old voiced aspirates /bh dh/ as well as the old fricatives /f ṣ/ had now all collided as /s/.  Nevertheless, plain /ð/ still remained dental, thus the sound combination /ðh/ reappeared almost immediately in new compounds where the memory of the previous sound change had been lost.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The new fricative <b>ðʰ</b>, which had re-appeared from the sequences ðh and hð, changed to <em>ṣ</em>.  This sound change happened so soon after the last that it seemed merely that the previous sound change had had many exceptions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Any remaining <b>ð</b> at the start of a word or after a consonant was changed to a hard <em>d</em>, thus creating yet another new /dʰ/, which soon changed to /tʰ/ in most branches except in words where it remained transparent as a compound of a word ending in -h (for -s) and one beginning in d-.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   Accented syllables gained a pharyngeal
+		<em>ʕ</em> as an onset if a consonant was not already there.  <s>If the syllable began with a glottal stop, it changed to <em>ʢ</em>. </s> If there was an /x/ (resulting from syllable-final /h/), it became <em>ĥ</em> (a "true" /h/, not like {h} which really is /x/).
+Thus, all long vowels now had their stress on the first vowel and thus
+had a falling tone, and the glottal stop could not begin an accented
+syllable.
+Additionally, the consonants <b>w j</b> changed to <em>ʕʷ ʕʲ</em>, which were soon strengthened to gʷ gʲ in some situations (those are fricatives).
+</li><li>&nbsp; After long vowels, all consonants became voiced.
+Also, consonants occurring after initial vowels also became voiced.
+This created the new consonants <em>b v vʷ d z ġ dž</em> (the glottal stop disappeared).  Thus, final <b>-s</b> in words like hʷīs became <em>-z</em>.  However, analogy made it so that the change was confined to open syllables in most words.
+</li><li>&nbsp; A taboo on velar consonants before vowels developed
+from an earlier collision of certain sounds in some words: in polite or
+deferential speech, the velar consonants <b>k ġ h g l</b> had shifted to <em>ts dz š ž l'</em>.  In addition, the uvular approximant <b>r</b> was often fronted to a bilabial <em>β</em> and the velar nasal <b>ŋ</b> to a palatal <em>ñ</em>. Since there were no phonemes with these values in other contexts, there was no confusion to be had.  This happened mostly with the speakers of what would later become Pabappa.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   After initial unstressed /u/, all consonants became labialized.  Thus uġau "heart" &gt; uġʷau.  This change extended even to clusters.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; <s> Initial unstressed /o/ and /e/ rose to /u/ and /i/ respectively.  (Hadnt they already bottomed out?)</s> (unless this remains for foreign loans)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Initial vowels were deleted unless an illegal consonant cluster would have resulted.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The fricatives <b>fʷ vʷ</b> became <em>hʷ ʕʷ</em> (though ʕʷ was gʷ allophonically).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All schwas and diphthongs became low tone.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The glottal stop disappeared in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; <b>ʢ</b> became the new glottal stop.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Labialized consonants lost their labialization when occuring after another labial or labialized consonant (used to explain bàigʷa &gt; bàiga).  This also affected labialized consonants occurring before syllabic ṁ ?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; After a stressed syllable, intervocalic <b>ʕ ʕʷ</b> became <em>g gʷ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;<s> Vowel sequences like <b>ea</b> and <b>oa</b> changed to <em>ia</em>, <em>ua</em>, etc.  unless the e/o was accented.</s>
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  <s> The vowel sequences <b>àa èa òa</b> became <em>ā ē ō</em>.</s>
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The velar fricatives <b>h ɣ</b> were rounded to <em>hʷ ʕʷ</em> before <em>u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   <s> The accent was shifted to the first syllable in all words.  (??)</s>
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The consonant sequence <b>sh</b> (e.g. bisha "stick, twig") became <em>ss</em>.  Likewise <b>shʷ</b> became <em>ssʷ</em>, except at the beginning of a word, where it was simply <em>sʷ</em>. This is distinct from the consonant sequence /sw/ which was much more common.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiceless fricatives <b>sʲ zʲ</b> became <em>š ž</em> unconditionally. (Thus mhyjax &gt; mʰəyâ &gt; fiâ &gt; siâ &gt; šâ, later ħâ).</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Vowel sequences like <b>ae ao</b>, where the a was unaccented, shifted to <em>ie uo</em>, etc.  ("The karaoke shift".)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Labialized fricatives that were not velar changed to "harsh" postvelar ones.  e.g. <b>sʷ zʷ</b> became <em>ħʷ ʕʷ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The vowels <b>e o</b> both changed to <em>a</em> in all positions. (Short forms only.)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The voiceless fricatives <b>š ž</b> became <em>ħ ʕ</em> unconditionally.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  NOTE: THERE WAS AN ADDITIONAL SOUND: PROBABLY ś, AN EJECTIVE FRICATIVE.  IT IS THE SORCE OF ALL F IN BABA THAT IS S IN THAOA BUT NOT XW IN KHULLS.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Now the politeness taboo became extended to final
+velars and to consonant clusters, which had up to now always been
+required to begin with a velar consonant. <b>k</b> became <em>p</em> in syllable-final position except when word-final, in which case it became <em>ts</em>.  <b>g</b> became <em>b</em> and <em>dz</em> accordingly.  <b>ŋ</b> assimilated in word-medial position and became the glottal nasal <em>~</em> word-finally.  Meanwhile, the velar fricatives <b>h ɣ</b> shifted to <em>s z</em> in both positions.
+All of this affected only polite speech.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Alliterative compounds whose first component was
+monosyllabic came to use the standalone form of the word rather than
+the connective. Previously there would have been no difference, but now
+that velar consonants had split into two there was a difference:
+word-medial <b>~</b> became <em>m</em> (from <b>~β</b>) rather than <b>ñ</b>.
+Because of the fact that politeness registers now affected compounding
+processes, yielding a velar connecting consonant in the informal
+register but a labial or alveolar in the polite register, some word
+pairs came to have more than one possible mutual compound, and the
+forms were borrowed between the speech registers. Thus the barriers
+between the speech registers began to break down.
+<br><br>Thus Ukieipi had the consonants <em>p b f v m w hʷ ʕʷ t d ṣ ð s z n l č ǯ j k g h ɣ r</em> and the vowels <em>a i u ə</em>.
+There was a contrast between high and low tone, but it was only on the
+first syllable and it was mostly determined by what consonant began the
+word.   Ukieipi was confined to Fox Island, even though other languages from Tapilula had already left the island.
+</li></ol>
+	</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="115"></td><td>
+	&nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="115"></td><td style="width: 9px">
+	<p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="115" valign="top"><br><br><br><a href="file://alxon/Users/Soap/Documents/blop2/khulls.html">Khulls</a></td><td>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="topic">
+Ukieipi to Khulls &nbsp; (5800 BC or 4700)
+</p>
+(extremely conservative ... even the tone system is unchanged ... this lang will resemble Moonshine superficially,
+but the consonant system has "holes" that Moonshine has filled in through gradations.  This language is spoken near Bābākiam, in the city of Pabap.
+)
+<p class="body">
+Initial phoneme inventory: /p b f v m w t d s z n l č ǯ j k g ŋ h ɣ r a i u ə/
+<br>Four tones: <em>ă</em> indicates stressed short vowels with no tone (i.e. a low tone), <em>à</em> indicates stressed short vowels with high tone, <em>ā</em> indicates stressed long vowels with a falling tone (seen as high + low), and <em>á</em> indicates stressed long vowels with a rising tone (seen as low + high).  Two short stressed high vowels (e.g. àà) do not make a long vowel because there is an inherent glottal stop in the à tone whenever it comes before another vowel or at the end of a word.  Thus the glottal stop could be considered marginally phonemic.  Unstressed vowels can have tone in a shadowy way:  no marker indicates a low tone, and a dot above (ȧ) indicates a high tone.  However, these unstressed high tones are mostly swallowed except in long sequences of low tones.
+<br>
+Voiced stops other than "d" are rare, and cannot occur after another consonant except in some compounds.  That is, there is no /mb/, /bb/, etc.  But /d/ is an exception to this rule because it arose from different environments.  /b/ and /g/ were marginal, in fact, and /g/ is generally spelled ğ or ġ which leaves {g} free for the much more common phoneme /ɣ/.   But this is not carried over to the phonemic listings below.
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp; All schwas became low-tone (previously they had all been high-tone).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The vowels <b>a à ā aa</b> changed to <em>a à ā á</em>.  <b>i ì ī ii</b> became <em>i ì ī í</em>.  <b>u ù ū uu</b> became <em>u ù ū ú</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; <b>aə āə àə áə</b> changed to <em>ā</em>. Schwa after a vowel, in general, assimilated to that vowel along the lines of the sound change here. (but did they even exist? The only missing conso is the glottal stop)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The diphthongs <b>əi ài</b> both changed to <em>ē</em>.  <b>àu</b> became <em>ō</em> (there were no short versions of these vowels at this time.)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The uvular <b>r</b> changed to <em>ʢ</em> (a voiced pharyngeal fricative).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Fricatives preceded by ʕ became voiced.  e.g. <b>ʕs</b> ---&gt; <em>z</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The vowel <b>u</b>, in all tones and lengths, changed to <em>o</em> of the same tone and length.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Unaccented long vowels (of any tone) became short.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Sequences like <b>aʕa</b> became pharyngealized vowels; these were considered a tone all their own and thus could not have tone (or length) distinctions.  Pharyngealized vowels are spelled <em>â</em>, sometimes with an "x" before or after the vowel depending on the origin of the tone (more later).  Thus <b>ŋoʕos</b> "evil spirit" became <em>ŋôs</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Most voiced fricatives (but not ʕ) disappeared in unstressed positions  e.g. <b>z</b> ---&gt; <em>0</em>.  In stressed positions, they became <em>ʕ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Nondorsal + dorsal clusters such as <b>pk tk mŋ nŋ </b> changed to <em>ppˁ ttˁ mm nn</em>.  Note that these only occurred in syllable onsets, and chiefly only grammatically inflected forms of words with simple consonants. (ˁ is a shortcut to show that they were not aspirated)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>pŋ tŋ</b> became <em>pˁ tˁ</em> (a shortcut to show that they were not aspirated) and if the syllable was accented, caused the following vowel to become pharyngealized.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Before or after a pharyngealized consonant, the vowel <b>i</b> became <em>e</em>.
+<b>CANCELLED!!!</b></li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The aspirated stop <b>dʰ</b> became <em>tʰ</em>.  (There was no bʰ).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>mk nk</b> became <em>mpˁ ntˁ</em>.  (Unaspirated.)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The clusters <b>km kn kŋ</b> became <em>m n ŋ</em> but caused the preceding vowel (this could not be word-initial) to acquire the checked tone <em>v̀</em>. Thus <b>akmà</b> "cherry" became <em>àmà</em>, and words with two checked tones in a row were created.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The clusters <b>kʕ ŋʕ</b> became <em>k ŋ</em> and pharyngealized the following vowel (if it was accented).  Thus <b>loŋʕà</b> "womb" became <em>loŋâ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  <s>The unaspirated voiceless stops <b>p t</b> became voiced: <em>b d</em>.  k did not change.</s>
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The schwa vowel disappeared in all positions unless an illegal consonant cluster would be created.  It labialized any consonant that preceded it.  Thus labialized versions of all consonants were created.  In cases where the schwa did not disappear, it changed to <em>u</em> (always low tone).  If the syllable ended in the final consonant (which was particularly common after schwa), instead of becoming an "illegal" cluster, the consonant became syllabic.  Thus the syllabic consonants <em>s: m: p: z: l:</em> were created.  (Labializing influence caused the nasal and stop to be "m" and "p", as in
+Poswa.)   Alternate spellings: s̄ p̄ m̄ l̄ z̄ The p was non-aspirated.</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Where /ə/ collapsed, stress shifted syllables to the nearest adjacent one.  This tone was mid-tone (ă) unless there had been a "dot" tone previously.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  However the syllabic <b>p:</b> changed to <em>ʷ</em> before another consonant and to a regular
+non-aspirated <em>pˁ</em> in word-final position. The syllabic s̄ changed to ś (aspirated) before a vowel and s̄́ in a closed syllable (but these are not distinguished in spelling).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  After a syllabic nasal, the final stop <b>k</b> (which was the only one that did occur) changed to match the position of the nasal.  Thus <em>ṁp ṅt ŋ̇k</em> were created.
+Again, these were all non-aspirated and were often thought of as glottal stops
+by foreigners.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Sequences like <b>hṁm</b> (in kahṁma "dark-skinned") changed to <em>ṁʰ</em>, and so on.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Labialized coronals <b>tʷ dʷ nʷ</b> changed to <em>kʰʷ gʷ ŋʷ</em> <s></s>before the vowel /a/ or /o/ (probably before *all* vowels eventually)unconditionally.   Note that  /dʷ/ ripens into a true /ġʷ/ later on, not the fricative gʷ.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The consonant cluster <b>hʷg</b> became <em>kʰʷ</em> (not xʷ, even though g was a fricative).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The cluster <b>nð</b> (spelled nd) became <em>ṇ</em> (a dental nasal). (or was it nd all along?) <b>mv</b> became <em>ṃ</em> (a labiodental nasal).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The voiceless fricative <b>hʷ~f</b> became <em>xʷ</em> (not hʷ) in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The clusters <b>mb nd nġ</b> became <em>??</em>.  (maybe they just stayed on as marginal phonemes)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  <s>Pharyngealized vowels cancelled the aspiration of any consonants that preceded them.  This process remained productive through the end of the use of the pharyngealized tone.</s>
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The voiced sounds <b>b bʷ v vʷ</b> changed to <em>ʢʷ</em>.  <b>ġ</b> changed to <em>ɣ</em> (usually spelled g).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The coronals <b>č ǯ</b> became <em>š ž</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The voiced stop <b>d</b> became <em>l</em> in initial position, but <em>r</em> (a flap) elsewhere. <s>  However it stayed as d before another l, or after a consonant such as k or ŋ.  Also it didnt change if it was a stressed syllable onset.</s>This did not affect dʷ.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The voiceless fricative <b>h</b> strengthened into <em>x</em> in most positions ... anything other than being after a stop or nasal.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Final <b>k</b> raised the preceding vowel to a high tone à (á if it was long) and then disappeared, though it left an allophonic glottal stop in some positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Palatalized velars, such as <b>kʲ xʲ</b>, became postalveolar.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The clusters <b>ṗs ṗš</b> became <em>ps pš</em> (that is, the /p/ became aspirated).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The sequences <b>ʕə ʕʷə</b> both became <em>û</em>.  <b>ʕəs</b> became a syllabic <em>ż</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The labialized fricative <b>šʷ</b> became <em>hʷ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Fricatives before syllabic nasals disappeared, but changed the preceding tone to high as if they had been syllable-final.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  <b>ya yo</b> (on all tones) &gt; <em>ye</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+ <br>(Early Poswa-era changes) ... NOT shared by Moonshine
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Nasal consonants followed by /j/ became voiced stops: <b>my ñy</b> became <em>by ǯy</em>.  (This includes the reflexes of /ny/ and /ŋy/.)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The palatal glide /j/ was deleted when not before a high vowel (it was only /e i u/ by now anyway).
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The clusters <b>ml nl ŋl</b> changed to <em>bl dl ġl</em>, thus restoring voiced stops to a marginal phonemic position.  WHAT ABOUT PALATALS?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The labialized consonants <b>mʷ nʷ ŋʷ</b> changed to <em>bʷ dʷ ġʷ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The sound /l/ disappeared after a voiced stop: the clusters <b>bl dl ġl</b> changed to <em>b d ġ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The voiceless labialized nasals <b>mʷʰ nʷʰ ŋʷʰ</b> changed to <em>mpʷ ntʷ ŋkʷʰ</em>.  Non-labialized aspirated nasals also changed.  In initial position, the nasal element dropped out.  Thus there was once again a phonemic /tʷ/ in the language.  However, there were some words such as kʷhʷnōn "beak" where there was an initial consonant as well, and in these cases the word became kʷhʷṅtōn.
+</li>
+</ol>
+Thus Ukieipi's original four tone system was preserved unchanged in Kuroras: <em>ă à ā á</em> (with unstressed variants <em>a ȧ</em>).  However, minimal pairs between ā and á were few, and the whole system could still be analyzed as a length contrast, with ă corresponding to bare short vowels, à to short vowels followed by a glottal stop, ā to long vowels, and á to sequences of two short vowels (or in some words, one long vowel followed by a glottal stop).  This is the method that was used for transcription of loanwords into Bābākiam.  <br><br>  The final phonology of Kuroras was   /p pʷ m mʷ w t n s l r š ž j k ŋ x ɣ kʷ ŋʷ xʷ ɣʷ ʔ h ʢ hʷ ʢʷ b d ġ/ for consonants and /a e i o u ə/ with four tones for vowels.  Dipthongs are not distinguished from vowel sequences and are mostly determined by accentuation patterns and tone.  Many of the consonants are very marginal: /b d ġ bʷ dʷ ġʷ h hʷ ṃ ʔ ʢ ɣʷ/ all occurred in very restricted environments. Most of the labialized consonants were not particularly common either.   Thus the "major" consonants were just /p m w t n s l r š ž j k kʷ ŋ x ɣ xʷ ʢʷ/.
+	<br><br>Kuroras is unusual in that it has only unconditional changes for its
+	vowels, apart from a few changes in tone.&nbsp; The other languages that
+	descended from Ukieipi all had a few conditional changes that "filled out"
+	the vowel system.&nbsp; Thus, even though Kuroras has five vowels, the
+	vowels /e/ and /u/ are quite rare, because they descend from diphthongs that
+	were themselves rare.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="185"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Kuroras to Sarapios&nbsp; (2000 BC)
+</p>
+(still very conservative)
+<p class="body">
+Initial phoneme inventory: /p pʷ m mʷ w t n s l r š ž j k ŋ x ɣ kʷ ŋʷ xʷ ɣʷ ʔ h ʕ hʷ ʕʷ/ for consonants and /a e i o u ə/ with four tones for vowels.  Dipthongs are not distinguished from vowel sequences and are mostly determined by accentuation patterns and tone.  Kuroras had a large inventory of "laryngeal" consonants:  /x ɣ ʢ h xʷ ɣʷ ʢʷ hʷ/.  But five of these are mostly marginal near-allophones of the other three, and indeed, half of the total consonant inventory consists of phonemes that would be considered "marginal". The stops /p/ and /t/ are fundamentally aspirated, but /k/ is not.
+<br><em>p pʷ t kʷ</em> Are fundamentally aspirated, but occasionally appear as unaspirated, and are spelled ṗ ṗʷ ṭ k̩ʷ.  These generally occur in place of clusters when the aspirated stops occured before a phoneme such as ʢ.
+<br><em>bʷ b d ġ ġʷ</em> Rare voiced stops, mostly confined to clusters.  Unlike the unaspirated stops above, these generally arise from nasals.
+<br><em>kʰ</em> Unlike the other voiceless stops, /k/ in Kuroras is usually unaspirated.  But it does sometimes occur with aspiration, usually indicating that aspiration from another stop has carried over to a preceding /k/.
+<br><em>ʕ</em> Mostly occurs to break up vowel hiatus.
+<br><em>ʔ</em> Although this phoneme is directly inherited from the parent language, it is very rare, generally surviving in compounds of a word that previously ended in ʕ (not ʔ) followed by a word beginning in a vowel.
+<br><em>ɣʷ</em> Arises mostly from clusters such as ɣw and ɣʕʷ, and occasionally occurs as a word-initial voiced variant of xʷ.
+<br><em>mʰ nʰ ŋʰ lʰ rʰ</em>  Rare, originating entirely from clusters.
+<br><em>h hʷ</em>  Mostly confined to occurring after a consonant.  These would be considered post-consonantal allophones of x xʷ if not for the existence of a few words with the clusters kx and kxʷ.  Also there are a few words with bare /h/.
+<br><br>The consonant phonology with marginal consonants indicated in red would be: /<em>pʷʰ pʰ tʰ k kʷʰ s š ž r x xʷ ɣ ʕʷ m n ŋ w l j</em> <b>ṗʷ ṗ ṭ bʷ b d ġ ġʷ kʰ kʷ ʔ h hʷ ʕ ɣʷ mʰ nʰ ŋʰ lʰ rʰ</b>/.
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp;  The labialized fricative <b>ʢʷ</b> became <em>r</em> (uvular) in all positions.  The inherited alveolar flap r can be spelled ř or ŕ.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Labialized labials delabialized before the vowel /u/.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  All pharyngealized vowels became low-tone pharyngealized.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The fricatives <b>xʷ x hʷ h</b> all merged as <em>x</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The ă and â tones both merged as <em>â</em> (pharyngealized, long, low).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Unaccented vowels on either side of an ā-tone vowel became low (<em>ȁ</em>).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Syllables beginning with a voiced fricative or stop became low-tone.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Other unaccented vowels became medium tone.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   All fricatives (except r) became voiceless.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   All low-tone vowels became pharyngealized (that is, there was only one low tone now, and it was always pharyngealized).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Remaining voiced stops devoiced.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Short vowels became silent or reduced to coarticulations if the resulting consonant cluster was acceptable (very similar to the "Debra shifts" of Pabappa and Poswa).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Vowel length disappeared.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Stress disappeared; Sarapios now had only tone.
+</li>
+</ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="185"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Kuroras to Ogili&nbsp; (6800)
+</p>
+(Echo is 8500, this is the parent language)
+<p class="body">
+Initial phoneme inventory: /p pʷ m mʷ w t n s l r š ž j k ŋ x ɣ kʷ ŋʷ xʷ ɣʷ ʔ h ʢ hʷ ʢʷ ġʷ/ for consonants and /a e i o u ə/ with four tones for vowels.  Dipthongs are not distinguished from vowel sequences and are mostly determined by accentuation patterns and tone.
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The lateral <b>l</b> disappeared after a voiced stop.  (e.g. bl dl gl &gt;  b d g).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Unaspirated voiceless stops in a pharyngealized syllable became voiced.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Syllabic <b>hʷ</b> (common as a conditioned alternant of syllabic /s/) became <em>hʷə</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The unaspirated voiceless stops <b>ṗ ṭ k kʷ</b> became voiced stops <em>b d g ġʷ</em>.  (This is the same as the previous change, but generalized to all syllables.)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The alveolar flap <b>r</b> became <em>n</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The labialized velar consonants <b>kʷ xʷ</b> merged as <em>pʷ</em>.  <b>hʷ</b> became <em>fʷ</em>. <b>sʷ</b> and <b>šʷ</b> (e.g. in the word for "bomb") became <em>pʷfʷ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The labialized velar consonants <b>ġʷ gʷ</b> merged as <em>bʷ</em>.  <b>ʕʷ</b> became <em>vʷ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  All pharyngealized vowels became low-tone pharyngealized.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The voiceless nasals <b>mʰ nʰ ŋʰ</b> became <em>mp nt ŋk</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The post-alveolar fricatives <b>š ž</b> changed to <em>s z</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The vowel <b>o</b> changed to <em>ə</em> (also spelled /ɜ/) in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The vowel <b>u</b> changed to <em>ɨ</em> (also spelled /и/) in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Geminate consonants changed to normal ones; e.g. <b>píssìná</b> "toilet" became <em>písìná</em>.  No tone change?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Sequences such as <b>owi</b> and <b>iya</b> where the first vowel was accented became <em>ovʷi iža</em>, etc.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Labialized labials delabalized in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  <s>Labialized consonants delabialized, but created new vowels <em>â ê î ô û ə̂</em> (IPA /O u y u y u/). </s> <b>CANCELLED!!!</b>
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiced stop <b>ġ</b> became <em>ɣ</em> between vowels.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The nasal <b>ŋ</b> disappeared between vowels and in initial position.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   If there were two labial stops/nasals in a row with a vowel between them, the first one changed to coronal unless the vowel was long.  Thus <b>pamà</b> "cold" changed to <em>tamà</em>, but <b>pōpa</b> "children" remained <em>pōpa</em> and <b>povyn</b> "crab" remained <em>povyn</em>. <s> If either of the stops was labialized, however, this shift did not happened.</s>
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    If there were two velar stops/nasals in a row with a vowel between them, the first one changed to coronal unless the vowel was long.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Vowel length disappeared.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Stress disappeared; Echo now had only tone.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+</ol>
+Final phonology: /p b m f w t d n s l r š ž j k ŋ g x/ for consonants and /a e i o u O/ for vowels.
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="115"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Ukieipi to Thaoa&nbsp; (4500)
+</p>
+(expect about 90 changes to bring this in line with Blop)
+<p class="body">
+Initial phoneme inventory: /p b f v m w t d s z n l č ǯ j k g ŋ h ɣ r a i u ə/
+<br>Starts arond 1900.  Possibly Palli breaks off at the bfv &gt; b stage, changing it to v instead, and later to f.
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp; ī &gt; ei, ū &gt; ou.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; r &gt; ʡ
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ʷa ʷi ʷu ʷə &gt; ʷo ʷə ʷū wu.  Possibly second one is uj.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; final /p/ changed to k. /m/ stayed as m.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; High tone &gt; ʔ at end of silab (distinct from k)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; final ʔ disappears after diphthongs and long vowels (it was redundant)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; v g &gt; r (distinct from ʔ) intervocalically.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All voiceless stops become aspirated in initial position.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Voiced stops become voiceless in initial position. ʡ &gt; h
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ai au &gt; ae ao; aʡi aʡu &gt; e o.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; əi əu &gt; oi eu.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ā &gt; aʡ, aa &gt; ʡa.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; voiceless stop + ʡ &gt; voiced stop.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; mh nh ŋh &gt; mp nt ŋk
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; bh dh gh &gt; ph th kh
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Clusters like kʰn (in tʰikʰnan "vomit") become all voiceless and aspirated --- so tʰikʰtʰan (or tʰiktʰan), etc.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; f &gt; ṣ (theta). Surviving /v/ &gt; ẓ &gt; z
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; z &gt; l
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The semivowel /y/ became /t/ between a voiceless stop and a vowel (e.g. kya &gt; kta)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The semivowel /w/ became /p/ between a voiceless stop and a vowel (e.g. kwa &gt; kpa)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The semivowel /y/ became /s/ between an aspirated stop and a vowel (e.g. khya &gt; ksa)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The semivowel /w/ became /f/ between an aspirated stop and a vowel (e.g. khwa &gt; kfa)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; For the above changes, it was /d b z v/ if voiced.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; For the above changes, if the cluster was word-initial, the first element disappeared.  (e.g. kpi &gt; pi)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; For nasals, it's just /mm/ for the labial and ñ (spelled as ny) for the palatal.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The semivowel /y/ after a voiceless fricative turned that fricative into š and disappeared.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The semivowel /w/ became /f/ between a voiceless fricative and a vowel (e.g. swa &gt; sfa)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  tt &gt; tš
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ly &gt; ž, lw &gt; ʡw
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; voiced fric + y &gt; ž; voiced fric + w &gt; v (just that's it).  f was spelled {v} now.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ry &gt; ž, rw &gt; ʡw
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Final -s &gt; -t ?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The semivowel /w/ became /p/ between a voiceless stop and a vowel (e.g. kwa &gt; kpa)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; tp &gt; pp
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; voiced consonants became voiceless if preceded by a vless (even if over a vowel)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Final ʔ &gt; long vowel?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; FInal /k/ &gt; ʔ.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; awa &amp; aya &gt; ō ē.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ǯ &gt; /j/ or /ž/
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; f v b &gt; all merge as b (indistinct /w/-like sound; b is to w as ž is to y). THis happened rougly in the year 3600?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; **Clusters such as /hp/ (almost exclusively in CaC- compounds) metathesized to /ph/, etc.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; mb nd ŋg  &gt; mp nt ŋk
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; If two consos in a row were aspirated, the unaccented one loses aspiration.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ei &gt; e; eih &gt; ei; ou &gt; o; ouh &gt; ou.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;ao &gt; ea; aoh &gt; ao.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The rare triphthong aou &gt; ao as
+well.</li>
+<li>&nbsp; FInal h &gt; long vowel.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Final ɣ (or ʡ) changed to n (a weak nasal that assimilates).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; t &gt; tš (except in certain clusters, such as kt &amp; pt, or if aspirated)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; s z &gt; š ž; ṣ &gt; s
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ɣ &gt; x (?)  (If so this is where Palli does v &gt; f). ~4000 year.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ei ou &gt; ai au
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Aspiration was lost when a consonant was preceded by a glottal stop.   e.g.  ʔth &gt; ʔt.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; d &gt; t
+</li>
+ <li>&nbsp; Remaining voiced stops became nasals.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; k &gt; ʔ some intervocals (kk &gt; k; this does not affect aspirated k)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; If two aspirated consoants occur together, the first loses aspiration.  Thus word-initial /t/ was created.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ala &gt; al, etc.  (but not alaʔ)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; eu &gt; ia
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ael (but not ail) &gt; al.  CONTROVERISL !!! *pymphal
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ʕʲ &gt; ž (e.g. kʰuʕia "urine" &gt; kʰuža).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+Final phoneme inventory:  /p m w t s n l č ñ j k h x ŋ ɣ r ʡ ʔ š  | a e i o u ə/ maybe b ž
+	<br>(š ñ č could be argued to be not phonetic)
+	<br>This is really just the Middle Stage (Thaoa) ...
+	probably contemporary with Babakiam.   There were also ā ē ī ō ū ai au ia ea ao
+	</ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="185"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+<!--  Thaoa to Palli&nbsp; (2000 BC)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+Initial phoneme inventory: /p m w t s n l č ñ j k h x ŋ ɣ r ʡ ʔ š  | a e i o u ə/ maybe b ž
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>ʔm ʔn ʔŋ</b> became <em>b d g</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All sequences of a vowel followed by a glottal stop became long vowels.  That is, <b>aʔ eʔ iʔ oʔ uʔ əʔ</b> became <em>ā ē ī ō ū ə̄</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The distinction between long vowels and doubled short vowels was lost: all long vowels became doubled.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The short vowels <b>e o</b> became <em>ə</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The long vowels <b>ē ō</b> changed to <em>iə uə</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The distinction between long vowels and doubled short vowels was lost: all long vowels became doubled.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The voiced approximants <b>b ž</b> changed to <em>ʢ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The vowel sequences <b>ii uu</b> became <em>ʲə ʷə</em> with the co-articulations cleaving on to the preceding consonant???.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The diphthongs <b>ai au</b> became <em>əi əu</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Short vowels <b>i u</b> both became <em>ə</em>?????. contradicts change listed below
+</li>
+<li>
+&nbsp; The labialized consonants <b>bʷ žʷ</b> changed to <em>b</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized consonants <b>bʲ žʲ</b> changed to <em>ž</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Sequences of two vowels in which the first vowel was <b>i</b> or <b>u</b>
+became rising diphthongs. Then all clusters of a consonant followed by
+a semivowel came to be pronounced as coarticulated single consonants.
+Thus <b>bua</b> became <em>bʷa</em>, <b>bia</b> became <em>bʲa</em>, and so on.  <b>ñ</b> was assimilated as <em>nʲ</em>.  (This change means nearly nothing, it is just here to show where Babakiam is.)
+</li><li>&nbsp; The long vowels <b>ī ū</b> became <em>ʲi ʷu</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Doubled labials became rounded (e.g. <b>pp</b> ---&gt; <em>ppw</em>).
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>əi</b> shifted to <em>e</em> and <b>əu</b> shifted to <em>o</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   In word-internal position, the labials <b>p b f</b> became doubled (and velarized). (or maybe it was just p)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  pp > p > b > d .... chain shift?  It doesnt really matter because much pp changes to p below anyway.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  In word-final position, or before a non-alveolar consonant, the consonant <b>s</b> shifted to <em>š</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>š</b> became <em>ž</em> before a voiced consonant.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The clusters <b>mp mf nt ns nš</b> became <em>mb mp nd nt nč</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Double labials in consecutive syllables became single  (e.g. <b>pabappa</b> --&gt; <em>pabapa</em>).
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The labial consonants <b>p b f</b> became <em>k ɣ h</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The consonants <b>č ž š</b> became <em>ts z s</em> unconditionally.  (<em>kʲ</em> did not shift because at the time it had come to behave like a cluster.)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The vowel <b>u</b> became <em>o</em> in unstressed syllables unless the stressed vowel of the word was also <b><font color="#000000">u</font></b>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The vowel <b>i</b> became <em>e</em> in unstressed syllables unless the stressed vowel of the word was also <b><font color="#000000">i</font></b>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The mid vowels <b>e o</b> became <em>ʲə ʷə</em> in stressed syllables and a simple <em>ə</em> in unstressed syllables.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The diphthongs <b>uj iw</b> both became <em>u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labialized consonant <b>mʷ</b> became <em>ɣʷ</em> in initial position and <em>ŋʷ</em> medially.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labialized consonants <b>tʷ nʷ sʷ</b> became <em>p m f</em> in initial position and <em>kt ɣʷ ks</em> medially.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labialized consonants <b>kʷ ŋʷ hʷ</b> shifted to <em>p m f</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized consonant <b>mʲ</b> became <em>ñ</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized consonants <b>tʲ nʲ sʲ</b> became <em>č ñ š</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized consonants <b>kʲ ŋʲ hʲ</b> shifted to <em>č ñ š</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>ɣ</b> became <em>l</em>.  <b>ɣʷ</b> became <em>lʷ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labialized approximant <b>lʷ</b> became <em>ll</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized consonants <b>kʲ ŋʲ hʲ</b> shifted to <em>č ñ š</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The sequence <b>wu</b> changed to <em>wi</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; New labialized and palatalized consonants began to form
+in compounds across morpheme boundaries and from vowel contraction in
+sequences like <b>taya</b> --&gt; <em>tʲa</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Allophonically, the vowels <b>i</b> and <b>u</b> changed to <em>e</em> and <em>o</em> in closed syllables.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The bilabial fricative <b>f</b> changed to <em>w</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Unaccented <b>ə</b> changed to <em>i</em> unless the accented syllable of the word contained a <em>ə</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Word-initial doubled consonants became single, except <b>ll</b>, which turned into <em>yl</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The velar stop <b>k</b> came to be pronounced as a glottal stop <em>ʔ</em> between vowels; this alternation remained allophonic rather than phonemic throughout the final stages of the language.
+	</ol>
+	-->
+	</p></td></tr></tbody></table>
+	<table><tbody><tr><td width="185"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Thaoa to Sakhi&nbsp; (8500)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+Initial phoneme inventory: /p m w t s n l č ñ j k h x ŋ ɣ r ʡ ʔ š  | a e i o u ə/ maybe b ž  EXTREMELY conservative!
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>ʔm ʔn ʔŋ</b> became <em>b d g</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All sequences of a vowel followed by a glottal stop became long vowels.  That is, <b>aʔ eʔ iʔ oʔ uʔ əʔ</b> became <em>ā ē ī ō ū ə̄</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The distinction between long vowels and doubled short vowels was lost: all long vowels became doubled.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The short vowels <b>e o</b> became <em>ə</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The long vowels <b>ē ō</b> changed to <em>iə uə</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The distinction between long vowels and doubled short vowels was lost: all long vowels became doubled.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The voiced approximant <b>b</b> changed to <em>ʢ</em> before another consonant (?).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The vowel sequences <b>ii uu</b> became <em>ʲə ʷə</em> with the co-articulations cleaving on to the preceding consonant???.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The diphthongs <b>ai au</b> became <em>əi əu</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Short vowels <b>i u</b> both became <em>ə</em>?????. contradicts change listed below
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The voiceless aspirated stop <b>pʰ</b> became <em>f</em> almost
+unconditionally.   e.g., the cluster kpʰ remained as kpʰ.</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The diphthongs <b>ae ao</b> became <em>ai au</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The voiceless unaspirated stops <b>p t</b> became <em>b d</em> (almost) unconditionally (they did not change in certain clusters, or in situations like pVCʰ).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The voiceless unaspirated stop <b>k</b> became <em>ʔ</em> (almost) unconditionally (it did not change in certain clusters, or at the endo f a word).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  x &gt; h
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The diphthong <b>oi</b> became <em>ʷi</em> in all positions. (What about other labials?)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All labialized consonants became pure labials.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The sequences <b>əw əj</b> became <em>u i</em>; thus əwi "echo" &gt; ui.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Schwa on either side of a vowel made it a long vowel.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Word-final <b>ŋ</b> merged to <em>n</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Aspirated stops remained so, but the spelling was changed.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; THe dipthongs <b>ea ia</b> became <em>ē ī</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The diphthongs <b>ae ao</b> became <em>ai au</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+Vowel length, in all positions, was destroyed.&nbsp; (year 5547); this is
+considered "Old Sakhi".
+<br>=====================
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The nasals <b>ŋ ŋ</b> changed to <em>g dž</em> (a voiced velar stop) unconditionally.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The stress accent was shifted to teh first syllabel in all words.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>ps ms pš mš</b> changed to <em>ts ns tš nš</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All consonants became single.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Palatalization disappeared after labialized consonants.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Final <b>y</b> in trisyllabic words disappeared, even if it created a word ending in a cluster; it also disappeared between two vowels if the resulting consonant cluster was acceptable.  However, all other vowels remained.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  All clusters, such as bs (in pabsa "blonde") changed to match the voicing of the second consonant.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All palatalized consonants became postalveolar.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Velar sounds changed to postalveolar before front vowels; <b>k g r</b> became <em>tš dž ž</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The diphthong <b>əi</b> changed to <em>i</em> unconditionally (this is how the sequence /ki/ survived).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ai au &gt; e o
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ž &gt; z
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Sequences like ua &gt; wa.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; bl &gt; ll; but just /l/ if initial
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Aspiration after an accented vowel skips to the beginning of the syllable, e.g. buhi &gt; bhui, and devoices any stops or fricatives.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; h &gt; 0
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Vowel sequences change into diphthongs ... e.g.   ui &gt; uj, but wi stays wi.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; F &gt; H except if in a consonant cluster.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Any diphthong ending in /j/ changed to a long /i/.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ew (spelled eu) &gt; i
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Any diphthong ending in /w/ changed to a long /u/.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Fricatives preceded by /j/ changed to postalveolars; fricatives preceded by /w/ changed to labials.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; year 7000?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All non-sibilant fricatives (including /f v/) died.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; /z/ died.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; 7414 AD
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+	</ol></td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="115"></td><td>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="inverse">
+</p>
+<p class="topic">
+Ukieipi to Papies (3100)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+Ukieipi was the language spoken in the city of Beni-Iubaia (earlier
+Iūni-Iubāia) around 8000 BC. It evolved into a language called Papies
+within about 1000 years, and then further into Babakiam by 6000 BC. <br>
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;  In the polite (frontalized) register, word-final <b>ts dz</b> became <em>p b</em> (generalized from compounds in which they became <em>p b</em> due to morphological rules that had arisen in Ukieipi).  Thus there were no longer two possible realizations of the phonemes <b>k g</b> at the end of a syllable in the polite register: they were always <em>p b</em>.  Likewise, fronted <b>ŋ</b> was generalized as <em>m</em> and <b>h ɣ</b> as <em>s z</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Sequences like /ʕaʕ/, /ʕiʕ/, etc. lost the first /ʕ/ regardless of whether it was in the same syllable or not.  (Possibly move this back even into Ukieipi.)
+</li><li>&nbsp; At the end of a syllable, <b>z</b> (which is /ʕ/) disappeared and
+changed the previous vowel to a high tone. It also voiced the following
+consonant. No new consonants arose from this change, but some voiced
+ones now became less restricted in their distribution.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The bilabial approximant <b>w</b> changed to <em>ʕʷ</em> (also spelled "v") before a vowel. Note that words like "kua" were still /kua/ rather than /kwa/ and thus did not undergo this change.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Then <b>l</b> became <em>w</em> (not ʕʷ) in all positions although it retained a rhotic allophone.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The rare labialized consonants <b>kʷ ġʷ</b> became <em>p b</em> unconditionally (not to be confused with the very similar shift below, which operated <i>after</i> a new wave of labialization!
+</li><li>&nbsp; Sequences of two vowels in which the first vowel was <b>i</b> or <b>u</b>
+became rising diphthongs. Then all clusters of a consonant followed by
+a semivowel came to be pronounced as coarticulated single consonants.
+Thus <b>bua</b> became <em>bʷa</em>, <b>bia</b> became <em>bʲa</em>, and so on.  <b>ñ</b> was assimilated as <em>nʲ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The long vowels <b>ē ō</b> became <em>əi əu</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The short vowels <b>e o</b> became <em>i u</em> if adjacent to a syllable with a high vowel, and <em>ə</em> otherwise.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Syllable-final <b>k ŋ</b> assimilated to the PoA of a following consonant.  (Kuroras and Thaoa kept them distinct.)
+</li>
+ <li>&nbsp;  The voiced labialized fricatives <b>vʷ zʷ ɣʷ</b> coalesced as <em>w</em> between vowels. But not ʕʷ ?
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced palatalized fricatives <b>vʲ zʲ ɣʲ</b> coalesced as <em>j</em> between vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced labialized stops <b>bʷ dʷ ǯʷ gʷ</b> changed to <em>b</em> between vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced palatalized stops <b>bʲ dʲ ǯʲ gʲ</b> changed to <em>ǯ</em> between vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced stops <b>b d ǯ g</b> (including ones created by the previous two rules) changed to <em>β ð ž ɣ</em> between vowels.
+ </li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced fricatives <b>ð z ɣ</b> became silent between vowels and occasionally in initial position (due to compounding).  Clusters like ɣj and jɣ (in bàiɣa "temple") would change to a doubled /j/ instead of just a normal /j/.  Thus doubled /j/ and /w/ were created.
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>βʷ</b> changed to <em>w</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>žʲ</b> became <em>ž</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  All aspirated consonants (except nasals) became voiceless, and the aspiration disappeared.
+</li>
+</ol>
+MOST COMMON DISAPPEARING CONSONANTS: <b>d g zs zt zk</b>
+<br>Thus the language now had the consonants <em>p b m f v w β t d n s z ð č ǯ š ž j k g h ɣ r</em> and the vowels <em>a i u ā ī ū e</em>, the last of which was a schwa.  Of the consonants, all but <em>w β ð č ǯ š ž j</em> could be palatalized or labialized.  In final position, <em>p m s w j</em> could occur, although <em>p m</em> were pronounced as glottals.  This language was spoken on Fox Island, although the people were beginning to be pushed out by others.  Some left and founded what became Bābā, others stayed on the southern tip of the island.
+<p class="topic">
+Puvutu Papies to Bābākiam (4100)
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp; The cluster <b>ps</b> changed to <em>ts</em>, thus merging with frontalized <em>k</em>.  <b>pš</b> became <em>č</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; A nasal in a cluster following <b>p</b> or <b>s</b> disappeared.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The glottal stop <b>ʔ</b> disappeared in all positions.  (But not ʕ or ʢ or ĥ.)
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced fricatives <b>β v z ž ɣ</b> changed to <em>b b d ǯ g</em> before a high tone.
+</li><li>&nbsp; A voiced sound in a cluster following <b>p</b> or <b>s</b> changed to <em>ɣ</em>.
+	(appears in many verb forms)</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The post-velar fricative consonants <b>ħ ʕ</b> changed to <em>f β</em>.  Note that this was the (rare) "true" /h/, not the common {h} which is /x/.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>pɣ sɣ</b> changed to the ejectives <em>ṕ ś</em>, but this shift did not affect the labialized or palatalized versions.  (These are the same consonants that became clicks in some Kxel languages.)  Note: really this should not just be /p/ and /s/, but really all voiceless sounds.
+What happened to sequences like mk or pk?</li><li>&nbsp;  The velar fricatives <b>h ɣ</b> were fronted to <em>š ž</em> unconditionally.  <b>šʲ žʲ</b> became <em>š ž</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced stops <b>bʷ dʷ ǯʷ gʷ</b> changed to <em>b</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced stops <b>bʲ dʲ ǯʲ gʲ</b> changed to <em>ǯ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced stops <b>b d ǯ g</b> changed to <em>p t č k</em> (except when in clusters).
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced fricative <b>ð</b> changed to <em>β</em>.  (<b>ð</b> had been revived due to loanwords.)
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced fricatives <b>v vʷ zʷ žʷ</b> changed to <em>β</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced fricatives <b>vʲ zʲ žʲ</b> changed to <em>ž</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>βʷ</b> changed to <em>w</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>žʲ</b> became <em>ž</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Tones were eliminated. However the stress accent (nouns
+on the penultimate syllable, verbs on the ultimate) remained and became
+regularized.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced stops <b>d ǯ g</b> changed to <em>n nʲ ŋ</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The cluster <b>pb</b> became <em>pp</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>β</b> changed to <em>b</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>z</b> changed to <em>s</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The ejectives <b>ṕ ś</b> became plain.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The postalveolar affricate <b>č</b> was softened to <em>š</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Newly created vowel sequences beginning with <b>i</b> or <b>u</b> collapsed into rising diphthongs, thus creating a new series of palatalized and labialized consonants.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labialized consonants <b>bʷ žʷ</b> changed to <em>b</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized consonants <b>bʲ žʲ</b> changed to <em>ž</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The stress was shifted to the first syllable in all words.   Thus the language had the consonants <em>p m f b w t n s k ŋ š ž j</em> and the vowels <em>a i u ə</em>, the last of which was a schwa.  Of the consonants, all except <em>b w ž j</em> could be followed by a semivowel <em>w</em> or <em>j</em>, when occurring at the beginning of a syllable.  At the end of a syllable, only <em>p m w s j</em> could occur.   This stage of the language is referred to as <b>Bābākiam</b>, "city language".&nbsp;
+	Spoken around the year 4100, not only in the city of Bābā but a significant
+	amount of territory away from it in all directions.</li></ol>
+<p class="topic">
+Bābākiam to Poswa (8700)
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp; Long vowels in initial syllables became double: <b>ā ī ū</b> became <em>aa ii uu</em>. </li>
+<li>&nbsp; The double vowels <b>ii uu</b> became <em>ʲi ʷu</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Between two consonants in a monosyllabic word, the diphthongs <b>au ai eu ei</b> changed to
+	<em>o ae u e</em>. iu &gt; y, ui &gt; i/y, uu &gt; u, ii &gt; i (Note: eu &gt; y if unstressed, hence peum &gt; pym &gt; pum; but this is actually a later shift) But in longer words, or when a consonant cluster was adjacent, a <b>b</b> was inserted and the individual vowels were retained.  And in word-final position they remained as diphthongs (to undergo a slightly different shift later).
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>ā</b> changed to <em>aba</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; At the beginning of a syllable and after <b>p m</b>, the semivowels <b>w</b> and <b>j</b> shifted to <em>r</em> and <em>l</em> respectively.  At the end of a syllable, no shift took place, but the orthography was changed as if it had.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced postalveolar fricative <b>ž</b> changed to the palatal approximant <em>j</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The consonant <b>šʲ</b> became <em>ś</em>, a voiceless palatal approximant.  <b>fʷ</b> became a voiceless rounded labial approximant.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The velar stops <b>k ŋ</b> changed to the labials <em>p m</em> in final position.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The medial clusters <b>pt mt pn mn</b> shifted to <em>tt nt tn nn</em>.  Then <b>pk mk sk pŋ mŋ sŋ</b> became <em>pt mpt št pn mn šn</em>.  <b>ms mš</b> became <em>mps mpš</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The cluster <b>sf</b> changed to <em>ff</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labialized consonants <b>sʷ tʷ nʷ</b> shifted to <em>ps pʷ mʷ</em> in word-initial position, and <em>ps pt bʷ</em> medially.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The new clusters <b>lw rw ww</b> merged as <em>w</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The consonant clusters <b>mʷ mr ml ŋʷ</b> shifted to <em>bʷ br bl gʷ</em> unconditionally.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Meanwhile <b>šʷ</b> changed to <em>pš</em>.
+	(***MOST KURORAS LOANS ENTER HERE***)&nbsp; year 4700</li><li>&nbsp;  In initial position before a vowel, the voiceless labial fricative <b>f</b> changed to <em>w</em>.  It also happened often to a word-internal -f- preceded by a /w/ of any origin.  (e.g. bwafa "hug" &gt; bwawa)  This shift did not affect <b>fʲ</b>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; After a labialized consonant (except <em>w</em>), the schwa vowel <b>y</b> changed to <em>u</em>.
+ </li><li>&nbsp; Labialized consonants lost their labialization when they occurred before <em>u</em>.  (But later they were re-introduced through compounding.)
+</li><li>&nbsp; The sequences <b>ow</b> and <b>uw</b> changed to <em>o</em> and <em>u</em> respectively.&nbsp;
+	This is the stage at which most "early Poswa" loans entered the Sak
+	languages.</li><li>&nbsp; The vowels <b>i</b> and <b>u</b> changed to <em>e</em> and <em>o</em> in closed syllables.&nbsp;
+	(Note that verbs still had a weak vowel -u and thus did not participate in
+	this change.&nbsp; For the same reason, many verbs did not participate in
+	rule 2 either and thus did not have these vowels to begin with, even if the
+	corresponding nouns did.&nbsp; Example, 'rum' (child) was still rimu here.&nbsp;
+	However, they were later analogized as if they had in fact dropped those
+	vowels, hence rum instead of rim.)
+</li><li>&nbsp; The vowel <b>y</b> in closed syllables changed to either <em>i</em> or <em>u</em> depending on the other vowel in the root. The default choice was <em>u</em>, unless it followed a <b>w</b>.  <em>i</em> was chosen only when it followed a <b>w</b> or was in a word in which an <b>i</b> or <b>e</b> was in an adjacent syllable and that was the only other vowel in the word.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The sequences <b>wu wo</b> changed to <em>wi we</em>.
+ </li><li>&nbsp;  Then, <b>s</b> and <b>p</b> disappeared before nasals and sporadically in stem-final position due to back-formation from plurals (e.g. <em>pe</em> "island" from <em>pena</em>, earlier <b>pes</b>, <b>pesna</b>).  sb -&gt; b, not to be confused with later shifts in which it turned into žb (re-compounding of words ending in s with words beginning with b happened essentially continuously; this shift was one time only).  Also not to be confused with a much earlier shift of sb -&gt; s (persistent in verbs, but nowhere else).  Thus the plurals of words ending in s lost the s in their nominal but not their verbal forms.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Unaccented <b>i</b> changed to <em>e</em> unless the accented syllable of the word contained an <em>i</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Then unaccented <b>y</b> changed to <em>i</em> unless the syllable ended in a labial or the accented syllable of the word contained a <em>y</em>.
+	Politically, the proto-Poswobs became independent here (5547), but the
+	language remained unified through physical contact for another 450 years or
+	so.</li><li>&nbsp;  The consonant cluster <b>ŋʲ</b> assimilated to <em>nʲ</em>.
+ </li><li>&nbsp;  Then unaccented <b>u</b> changed to <em>y</em> except when the syllable ended in a labial or the accented syllable also contained a <b>u</b>.  Note that this change was often ignored in possessive-case nouns due to analogy with other case endings.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Before a vowel, unaccented <b>y</b> and <b>yb</b> changed to <em>u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Before a vowel, unaccented <b>a</b> and <b>ab</b> changed to <em>i</em> ("the karaoke shift").
+</li><li>&nbsp; Next, <b>i</b> changed to <em>y</em> if the next syllable had <em>u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized consonants <b>pʲ mʲ sʲ lʲ rʲ</b>, which had been created mostly by rule 28, changed to <em>f v ś j b</em> before a vowel.  <b>bʲ</b> also changed to <em>b</em>. <b>šʲ žʲ</b> became <em>ś j</em>.
+	(year 6000; THIS IS WHERE PABAPPA BREAKS OFF)
+</li><li>&nbsp; In stressed syllables, in only a few words, <b>ol ul or ur</b> changed to <em>we wi wa wa</em>.  The conditioning environment was that the syllables had to be unstressed and have only one consonant before them; in other words, they occured in compounds only, in a syllable which would be stressed if it weren't a compound.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Simultaneously, syllable-final <b>r</b> in most words changed to <em>b</em>.  AQcutaly, it was f/v before coronals, b in absolute final position, stays r before šž + labials + velars (but really pronounced as /w/).  rl &gt; vl.  rr &gt; wr (spelled rr for now, but later as rw).  probably š ž before šž actually, but f before s changing to š.  Sometimes au+labial -&gt; o even so, no particular rule.  It always changed to /o/ in the initial sllable of a word, ignoring all these other rules.  thus pautu &gt; poty, not pafty.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The surviving final  <b>r</b> changed to <em>vʷ fʷ</em> before labials.  <b>fʷ</b> became <em>w</em>.
+ </li><li>&nbsp; The palatal approximants <b>ś j</b> (including any /j/ taken from loans) changed to <em>š ž</em> in all positions.
+ </li><li>&nbsp;<b>fʷ</b> became <em>w</em> before a vowel (that is, everywhere except before a labial).
+</li><li>&nbsp; In words not affected by the previous shift (mostly due to grammatical analogy), syllable-final <b>ar</b> and <b>yr</b> shifted to <em>o</em> and <b>er</b> and <b>ir</b> shifted to <em>u</em>.  However <b>ar</b> did not shift to <em>o</em> after a /w/, but rather became <em>abʷ</em> (by analogy).
+</li><li>&nbsp; In unstressed syllables before a nasal, the sequences <b>el il</b> merged as <em>i</em> and <b>or ur</b> merged as <em>u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Unstressed <b>ol</b> and <b>ul</b> became <em>e</em> before a consonant or at the end of a word.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>i</b> and <b>y</b> shifted to <em>u</em> before a labial in a closed syllable.  THIS IS WHERE TUPPY BREAKS OFF
+	(year 6843)</li><li>&nbsp; <b>ŋ</b> was denasalized to <em>g</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized velar consonants <b>kʲ gʲ</b> became the postalveolar affricates <em>tš dž</em>.
+In some dialects, including the one that produced Pabappa, this shift
+did not occur before back vowels, and instead the consonants were
+reduced to plain velars. </li><li>&nbsp; The labialized velar consonants <b>kʷ gʷ pʷ bʷ</b> were decomposed to the clusters <em>kw gw pw bw</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Final <b>y</b> in trisyllabic words disappeared.  Due to analogy, it disappeared in some shorter words as well.  However, consos that now occurred at the end of a word because of the dropped y became labialized, though this is not shown in Romanizaiton.  Thus minimal pairs such as <em>nap</em> "pyramid" versus <em>napʷ</em> "arrow" did exist.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The remaining palatalized consonants became labiodental fricatives: <b>fʲ</b> and <b>tʲ</b> merged as <em>f</em>, and <b>nʲ</b> changed to <em>v</em>.  <b>pf</b> became <em>ff</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Medial vowels in trisyllabic words disappeared if the resulting consonant cluster was acceptable ("the Debra shift"). wr&gt;rw.  Here again, labialization hung around if the deleted vowel was o u or y.  Thus there were minimal pairs such as <em>puppa</em> "salamander" vs <em>pupʷpa</em> "kind, humanitarian".  This period (around the year 7300) is the beginning of what is often considered "Classical Poswa" (<i>Poswa Maswumbies</i>).
+	Poswobs invaded Pabappa territory beginning around 7414, and the language
+	was essentially unchanged at that time.</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>š</b> before a nasal changed to <em>ž</em> and the nasal changed into a voiced stop.  At this time, the new sound <em>d</em> was spelled with the letter <b><font color="#000000">v</font></b>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Clusters in which the two elements were at different PoA's AND different classes resolved in the following ways:  <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; pn bn &gt; vž
+</li><li>&nbsp;  šn sn &gt; žv
+</li><li>&nbsp;  tm km &gt; vb
+</li><li>&nbsp;  fm vm &gt; vb
+</li><li>&nbsp;  šm žm sm šb sb &gt; žb
+</li><li>&nbsp;  tp &gt; pp
+</li><li>&nbsp;  pm tn &gt; mm nn
+</li><li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>pk</b> and <b>bg</b> became <em>pw</em> and <em>bi</em> respectively.  <b>mk</b> became <em>mw</em> (not mpw).&nbsp;
+	And likewise for other consonants.
+	</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced velar stop <b>g</b> was fronted to <em>dž</em> unless it occurred in a cluster after another consonant and before <b><font color="#000000">a o u</font></b>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>šb</b> and <b>bš</b> were devoiced to <em>šp</em> and <em>pš</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>žp</b> and <b>pž</b> became <em>žb</em> and <em>bž</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>pl</b> and <b>bl</b> became <em>p</em> and <em>b</em> respectively when overlaying two unaccented syllables.  The same also happened for other stop + nonstop clusters such as <b>pr br pš ps bž pt pf bv</b>, althoiugh pš, pf, and ps survived as aspirates pʰ for long enough to survive a particular subsequent shift.  Clusters like mž and mdž &gt; mbž &gt; mb.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The sequences <b>yw ww wy</b> changed to <em>ʷu</em> in all
+	positions (these three were all seen as the same thing anyway, w &amp; y are just Romanization.)
+</li><li>&nbsp; wi+vowel &gt; i+vowel (wawia "sadism" &gt; waia but still spelled wawia).  Likewise, the recently created ʷu &gt; u before vowels.  Neither of these changes occurred in absolute initial position, however; <em>wialeb</em> "also" remained wialeb.
+</li><li>&nbsp; iy &gt; ia (<em>platia</em> "record"); ii &gt; ie (<em>plopie</em> "grass").
+</li><li>&nbsp; In wholly unstressed syllables, except when preceded by <em><font color="#000000">a</font></em>, the clusters <b>rl</b> and <b>lr</b> changed to <em>al</em> and <em>ar</em> respectively, and raised the preceding vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp;The cluster <b>rgw</b> (occurring only in "wirgwep" and similar words) became <em>vbw</em>, with both consonants labialized.
+</li><li>&nbsp; A velar-onset syllable preceded by another changed to
+alveolar if the vowel was a back vowel, but postalveolar if it was a
+front vowel. The affected consonants were <b>k g kw gw r</b>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The inherited vowel <b>y</b> had lowered and weakened to a schwa in most positions.  Now the diphthong <b>al</b> (but not alʷ) went to <em>ae</em>  and <b>yl</b> to <em>e</em>.  <em>ae</em> was pronounced in some dialects as <em>ai</em> or <em>a</em>, with the <em>a</em> pronunciation winning out in all but a few words.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labiodental fricatives <b>f v</b> came to be pronounced as the dentals <em>ṣ ẓ</em> in all positions, but there was no change in the spelling.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Geminate stops overlaying two unaccented syllables reduced to single if there was another geminate earlier in the word.  This affected only compounds such as "talap bavva", which spawned a new variant <em>talabbava</em> and then created the new word "bava", and <b>pam mepoppos</b> became <em>pam mepopos</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; <b>pb</b> --&gt; <em>p</em> sporadically, especially overlaying two unaccented syllables.  Likewise also šb &gt; š, etc.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; <b>mp</b> --&gt; <em>mb</em> after a voiceless conso (e.g. pampa&gt;pamba), except if another voiceless conso followed
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Initial <b>ps pš</b> --&gt; ph --&gt; <em>p</em>, also sometimes if overlaying two unaccented silabs just as pl bl had.  (Thus pampsa &gt; pampa, not pamba).
+<br><br>ž&gt;j problems??
+</li>
+</ol>
+<br><br><br>
+Thus standard Ižda Mir, if labialized consonants are included as phonemes, had the consonants
+<em>w p pʷ b bʷ m mʷ f fʷ v vʷ t tʷ n nʷ s sʷ l lʷ r rʷ š šʷ ž žʷ k kʷ g gʷ</em>
+and the vowels <em>a e i o u y</em>, the last of which was a schwa.
+At the beginning of a syllable, all of the consonants as well as the clusters <em>pl pr bl br tš dž</em>
+were allowed. At the end of a syllable, all consonants were allowed,
+but were restricted based on the consonant that followed. At the end of
+a word, <em>p m s l b pʷ bʷ mʷ fʷ vʷ tʷ nʷ sʷ lʷ rʷ šʷ žʷ kʷ gʷ</em> were allowed.
+<br><br>
+However, the pronunciation of the phonemes given above was not strictly
+adhered to in all contexts by all speakers. Generally, only those
+Bloppabops who were Moonshines and also spoke some dialect of Moonshine
+would stick to the phonology given above. Monolingual Bloppabops and
+habaps would often have their own variant pronunciations, which
+although perceived by the speakers of proto-Bloppabop/Ižda Mir as being
+merely an idiolectal variation of no significance, often led to
+surprisingly divergent results in the later Bloppabop languages. For
+example, some speakers consistently pronounced <em>š ž k g</em> as <em>/s z t d/</em>
+in most environments, retaining the standard pronunciations of these
+phonemes as scarce allophones if at all. Other dialects kept <em>š ž</em> intact but changed <em>k g</em>
+into velar fricatives. The standard pronunciations were more likely to
+be reflected in daughter languages belonging to the Eastern branch of
+the Bloppabop family, because only in Eastern Pupompom did true
+bilingualism and interracial cohabitation continue to flourish, meaning
+that language change was mostly dependent on concomitant changes in
+Moonshine; in the Western and Central sections of the Empire knowledge
+of Moonshine declined and sound changes accelerated as the
+proto-Bloppabop phonology left to stand by itself without the addition
+of Moonshine was highly unstable. </td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="115"></td><td>
+<!-- pinna top-->
+<p class="topic">
+Bābākiam to Old Tahno (6500)
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp; Long vowels in initial syllables became double: <b>ā ī ū</b> became <em>aa ii uu</em>. </li>
+<li>&nbsp; The double vowels <b>ii uu</b> became <em>ʲi ʷu</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Between two consonants in a monosyllabic word, the diphthongs <b>au ai eu ei</b> changed to
+	<em>o ae u e</em>. iu &gt; y, ui &gt; i/y, uu &gt; u, ii &gt; i (Note: eu &gt; y if unstressed, hence peum &gt; pym &gt; pum; but this is actually a later shift) But in longer words, or when a consonant cluster was adjacent, a <b>b</b> was inserted and the individual vowels were retained.  And in word-final position they remained as diphthongs (to undergo a slightly different shift later).
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>ā</b> changed to <em>aba</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; At the beginning of a syllable and after <b>p m</b>, the semivowels <b>w</b> and <b>j</b> shifted to <em>r</em> and <em>l</em> respectively.  At the end of a syllable, no shift took place, but the orthography was changed as if it had.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced postalveolar fricative <b>ž</b> changed to the palatal approximant <em>j</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The consonant <b>šʲ</b> became <em>ś</em>, a voiceless palatal approximant.  <b>fʷ</b> became a voiceless rounded labial approximant.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The velar stops <b>k ŋ</b> changed to the labials <em>p m</em> in final position.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The voiced labial stop <b>b</b> became <em>ṿ</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Certain vowel sequences separated by <b>ṿ</b> lost it and lengthened the first vowel:
+ <b>iva uva </b> became <em>īa ūa </em>.  Meanwhile
+ <b>ivu uvu </b> became <em>īu ū </em> and
+ <b>ivi uvi </b> changed to <em>ī ūi </em>.
+ <b>ivə uvə </b> became <em>ū ūə </em>.    In a few words, these changes also applied across word
+ boundaries due to reanalysis.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The bilabial fricative <b>ṿ</b> sometimes became <em>w</em> initially or between vowels.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The fricative <b>ž</b> changed to <em>l</em> in all positions except after a voiceless consonant,
+in which case it changed to <em>š</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;Instances of a short <b>i</b> or <b>u</b> followed by a vowel of any length changed to <em>ʲ ʷ</em> and formed
+co-articulated consonants.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The co-articulated consonants created in the previous rule became voiced unless they followed a
+voiceless consonant.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The clusters <b>bʲ bʷ</b> became <em>b</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;A long vowel followed by another vowel became short.  Thus sequences like <b>tʷa</b> and <b>tua</b> could contrast.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The palatalized nasals <b>mʲ nʲ ŋʲ</b> turned into <em>ñ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The palatalized nasals <b>mʲ nʲ ŋʲ</b> turned into <em>ñ</em>.
+</li>
+</ol>
+<!-- pinna bot
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+-->
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="165"></td><td>
+<br>
+In some dialects, including the one that led to Pabappa, there was a merger between the velar stops <b>k g</b> and the postalveolar affricates <b>tš dž</b>; both became velar before back vowels and postalveolar before front vowels; <em>a</em> in this shift behaved like a front vowel.
+<br><br><br>
+Thus standard Ižda Mir, if labialized consonants are included as separate phonemes, had the consonants
+ <em>p b m w f v t n s l r š ž k g</em>
+  and the vowels <em>a e i o u y</em>, the last of which was a schwa.
+   At the beginning of a syllable, all of the consonants as well as the clusters <em>pl pr pw ps pš bl br bw (tš dž) kw gw</em>
+were allowed. (The parenthesized clusters did not exist in
+proto-Bloppabop.) At the end of a syllable, all consonants were
+allowed, but were restricted based on the consonant that followed. At
+the end of a word, <em>p m s l r f v š ž b</em> were allowed.
+<br><br><br>
+<p class="topic">
+Išena Mir to Proto-Pabappa (~6500) ... too early?
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp; Debra shift I. (But rV and wV didnt compress)
+("ae" and "al" remained distinct here).&nbsp; If the deleted
+vowel was y, o or u, the preceding consonant became a labial. If a consonant was already labialized or
+palatalizzed, it did not contract.  l r &gt; u (later to disappear) </li>
+<li>&nbsp;  <b>fʲ</b> --&gt; <em>f</em>
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; <b>ŋ</b> was denasalized to <em>g</em> in all positions, except
+certain clusters such as ŋr.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  <b>tš dž</b> (mostly in compounds because the normal k-&gt;tš shift didnt
+happen here) --&gt; <em>kʲ gʲ</em>
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Diphthongs of all types were resolved in favor of the first vowel. (including
+things like  <b>nʲa</b> and <b>tʲa</b> to <em>ni</em> and <em>ti</em>,
+and <b>mwa</b> to <em>mu</em>.)  Be careful to remember that tʲ and fʲ did not merge here,
+and in fact have different out comes even for the vowels that followed them.  Likewise,
+kʷ and all other labialized consonants turned their next vowel into /u/.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Stops occurring before a nasal assimilated fully.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The cluster <b>žž</b> simplified to <em>j</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Clusters of two fricatives of differing points of articulation were assimilated in favor of the second consonant.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The cluster <b>žbž</b> simplified to <em>žž</em>.  Other clusters, such as <b>sps</b> (in ''pospsar'' "urine"), simplified similarly.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Clusters of fricatives and stops of dissimilar voicing were resolved in favor of the second consonant.  For example <b>žp</b> became <em>šp</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>gv kf</b> became <em>bv pf</em>. (Thus Paleo-Pabappa <i>kagyvi</i> "poison" became Proto-Pabappa <i>kabvi</i>.)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The fricative <b>š</b> changed to <em>h</em> in initial position and <em>s</em> elsewhere.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The fricative <b>ž</b> came to be pronounced <em>z</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The cluster <b>rr</b> was reduced to <em>r</em>.&nbsp; This is
+		considered to be the stage of proto-Pabappa.</li></ol>
+<br>
+<p></p></td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="165"></td><td>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="165"></td><td>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="165"></td><td>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="topic">
+Proto-Bloppabop to Pabappa (8700)
+</p>
+<p class="body">Proto-Pabappa to Pabappa (8700)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+<br>
+Pabappa evolved from a dialect of Bloppabop that lacked the vowel m in place of the former and <em>k g</em> in
+place of the latter in all words.  However, these sounds were pronounced as <em>/tš dž/</em> before all front vowels,
+including <em>/a/</em>.  Thus the proto-Pabappa dialect of Bloppabop had the consonants
+ <em>p b m w f v t n s l r h z k g</em> and the vowels <em>a e i o u y</em>, the last of which was a schwa.
+ At the beginning of a syllable, all of the consonants as well as the clusters <em>pl pr pw ps pš bl br bw kw gw</em>
+were allowed. At the end of a syllable, all consonants were allowed,
+but were restricted based on the consonant that followed. At the end of
+a word, <em>p m s l r f v z b</em> were allowed. Then the following changes occurred:
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;  Double nasals were reduced to singles.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The vowel <b>ə</b> either disappeared or became <em>i</em> or <em>o</em> (governed by the
+surrounding vowels' HEIGHT (not backness)).  If it disappeared, it also labialized the new final consonant.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The fricative <b>z</b> disappeared in all positions, except in a few words where it remained as <em>d</em>.  Meanwhile the fricative <b>v</b> changed to <em>d</em>
+in all positions, except in a few words where it disappeared. These
+irregularities are explained by an early irregular stage of the sound
+change where <b>z</b> and <b>v</b> changed places in a few words.
+ </li><li>&nbsp;
+Unstressed cliticized prefixes were dropped from the language or
+phonologically incorporated into the following word by dropping the
+vowel, even when this created a previously forbidden consonant cluster.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The velar stops <b>k g</b> changed to the fricatives <em>š ž</em> in all positions.  Before back vowels, they were usually pronounced as velar fricatives.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The labialized consonants <b>sʷ šʷ</b> both became <em>f</em> (only to change to s later).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The cluster <b>sš</b> (usually from /sk/) became <em>šš</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The fricative <b>f</b> changed to <em>p</em> in initial position and <em>s</em> elsewhere.  This stage, reached around 7000 (?), is considered to be the classical stage of Old Pabappa, also called Pespimbesa.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The labiovelar stops <b>kw</b> and <b>gw</b> changed to the bilabial stops <em>p</em> and <em>b</em> in all positions.
+  fw -&gt; f, sw -&gt; w, tw -&gt; pw, vw -&gt; w, žw -&gt; w.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The single bilabial stop <b>p</b> became the geminate <em>pp</em> when following a voiceless consonant plus a vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The postalveolar fricatives <b>ž</b> and <b>š</b> became the labiodental fricatives <em>v</em> and <em>f</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Unstressed initial <b>pu-</b> changed to <em>purp-</em> before a vowel, where <em>-rp-</em> is a hypercorrection of the epenthetic <b><font color="#000000">r</font></b> that had appeared near the earliest stages of the language.  <b>pu-p-</b> and <b>pu-w-</b> became <em>w-</em>.  <b>pu-b-</b> became <em>pu-br-</em>.  <b>pu-t-</b> became <em>pu-d-</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  In initial position, the clusters <b>sp st ps</b> coalesced as <em>s</em>.    <b>sl</b> survived, but only in one native word; the others were all either loans or proper names.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced stops <b>b</b> and <b>d</b> became the voiceless stops <em>p</em> and <em>t</em> in all positions.   Fricatives did not devoice, but clusters such as <b>bv</b> became <em>pf</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Non-labial final consonants were replaced with labials in most words
+		(except -l and -r). s-&gt;f-&gt;0.  Final <b>b</b> became <em>p</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Final <b>e</b> disappeared, even after consonant
+clusters, except in monosyllabic words and some suffixes.   This created
+new consonant clusters in agglutinative forms of words and in
+compounds. Sporadically, monosyllabic words that had ended in <b>e</b> got a new <em>-s</em> or <em>-ssi</em> suffix which
+ caused the original <b>e</b> to be retained; this happened to other monosyllabic vowel-final words too.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Before a nasal, <b>p s t n</b> assimilated completely.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Clusters of a nonlabial stop followed by a labial stop were resolved in favor of the nonlabial one.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Final <b>o</b> was were lowered to <em>a</em> except if the
+		accented vowel was mid-height (e or o).  Final e (in the case that it survived
+		the previous sound change) was raised to i in the
+		same environment.&nbsp; This is considered to be the classical stage of Middle Pabappa.
+		<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Thus the phonology of Middle Pabappa was /p m w f v t n s l r h/ for consonants and /a e i o u/ for vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The sequence <b>aw</b> changed to <em>o</em> before any nonrounded vowel.  <b>ow</b> and <b>uw</b> became <em>o</em> and <em>u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The clusters <b>tl</b> and <b>ttl</b> both changed to <em>ll</em>. (was rpl)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The sequence <b>sr</b> became <em>spr</em>. <b>lr</b> became <em>rr</em>.
+ Any other nonlabial consonant before <b>r</b> became labial.  Then <b>mr</b> changed to <em>mpr</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Clusters of a nasal followed by any other consonant of
+differing point of articulation were assimilated in favor of the point
+of articulation of the second consonant.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>ml</b> became <em>mpl</em>.
+		(7414 war occurs here?)</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiceless labiodental fricative <b>f</b> changed to <em>w</em> in initial position.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>h</b> changed to <em>0</em> in all positions.&nbsp; (maybe h
+		&gt; f &gt; w internally before u?)</li><li>&nbsp;    Initial <b>pw</b> became <em>w</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    Unstressed syllables of the form CVCC where the two latter C's were a geminate or one of a few other types of consonants changed the vowel to a very short schwa <em>ə</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Intervocalic voiceless stops became voiced.  (Possibly omit this shift if a geminate voiceless is nearby.) The cluster <b>pl</b> became <em>bl</em> in all positions;
+<b>pr</b> became <em>b</em> in word-initial position, and <em>br</em> elsewhere.  (maybe just -b- everywhere since it would be the only
+b in the language after clusters and thus not
+contrast with anything.)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The geminate stops <b>pp</b> and <b>tt</b> became <em>p</em> and <em>t</em> in all positions.  Meanwhile <b>ss</b> became <em>s</em>.  (Possibly omit this shift if another geminate is changing)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The cluster <b>sp</b> became <em>ss</em>.  Most suffixes that had formerly begun with <b>p</b> were now considered to begin with <em>b</em>, but this <em>b</em> was realized as <em>b</em> only after a vowel or a bilabial consonant; elsewhere the consonant disappeared or, in the case of <em>t</em> and <em>d</em>, doubled the preceding consonant.  After <em>p</em>, which would normally be omitted, the suffix came to begin with <em>p</em>.  (ANDANESE PABAPPA SPLITS OFF HERE)
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Initial <b>v</b> became <em>f</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The labiodental fricatives <b>f</b> and <b>v</b> became the bilabial stops <em>p</em> and <em>b</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The marginal schwa phoneme disappeared, creating some new clusters and geminates. (Debra shift II.) Thus words like <b>popa</b> "oak tree/rabbit" (a homophone pair) became <em>-ppa</em> when they were the second element of a compound. If the new cluster was "impossible", it retained a vowel (either /i/ or /u/) instead. However, outside of place names and personal names, these new affixes did not actually survive very often, as they were a unique word form in the language, and in most cases the new words were restored to compounds (since they had been almost all compounds anyway).
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The bilabial stop <b>b</b>, between two identical unaccented vowels (e.g. -aba, -obo), turned to <em>m</em> sporadically as the result of analogy from various noun declensions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The clusters <b>tr dr</b>, which only occurred in loans and a few compounds, became <em>k g</em>.
+</li></ol>
+Thus the final phonology of Pabappa was /<em>p b m w t d n l s r</em>/ for consonants and /<em>a e i o u</em>/ for vowels.  The phonemes /k/ and /h/ were common in borrowings, but many speakers pronounced these as /ʔ/ or /0/.  A few speakers, however, did pronounce [k] and [h], because [k] appeared as an allophone of /t/ before /r/ (even though this sequence itself was also found only in loans), and [h] appeared as an allophone of /r/ in initial position.  In the so-called "Post-Pabappa" language, when the speakers of Pabappa were crushed by invading armies into living along the south coast, true phonemic /k/ and /x~h/ became more common.
+<br><br>Western (Andanese) dialect: ar er ir or ur &gt; au eu iu oa ua; al el il ol ul &gt; al el il oi ui.  (i.e. clear L survives, dark L dies.)  v f &gt; b p (without the change of v &gt; f &gt; P initially; thus pipi "wall" is bipi).
+<div align="bottom">
+</div></td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="220"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Middle Pabappa to Wuwa dialect (~8400)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiced fricative <b>v</b> became <em>b</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiceless fricative <b>h</b> changed to <em>f</em> before "u".
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>ar or ur</b> both became <em>o</em>, thus introducing a new final vowel to the language.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>al el il</b> both became <em>e</em>, thus introducing a new final vowel to the language.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>ol ul</b> changed to <em>ae</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiceless fricative <b>f</b> changed to <em>w</em> in all (most?) positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiceless fricative <b>h</b> changed to <em>š</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Initial vowels disappeared when in words of three or more syllables; ipotto &gt; potto.  Did they also lengthen the next vowel?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The vowel sequences <b>eu iu ou uu</b> changed to <em>ō ū o u</em> unconditionally.  (ou uu changed earlier than the others.)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Word-internally, an <b>-s</b> at the end of a syllable disappeared and lengthened the preceding vowel.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+</ol>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="inverse">
+</p>
+	<p class="body">&nbsp;<br>
+</p> </td></tr></tbody></table>
+<!-- dfdffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff -->
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="220"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Proto-Pupompom to Wawiabi dialect (~8400)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiced fricative <b>v</b> became <em>b</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiceless fricative <b>h</b> changed to <em>f</em> before "u".
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>ar or ur</b> both became <em>o</em>, thus introducing a new final vowel to the language.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>al el il</b> both became <em>e</em>, thus introducing a new final vowel to the language.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>ol ul</b> changed to <em>ae</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiceless fricative <b>f</b> changed to <em>w</em> in all (most?) positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Diphthongs of all types were resolved in favor of the first v</li></ol>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="inverse">
+</p>
+	<p class="body">&nbsp;<br>
+</p> </td></tr></tbody></table>
+<!-- dfdffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff -->
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="165"></td><td>
+Thus standard Ižda Mir, if labialized consonants are included as separate phonemes, had the consonants
+ <em>p b m w f v t n s l r š ž k g</em>
+  and the vowels <em>a e i o u y</em>, the last of which was a schwa.
+   At the beginning of a syllable, all of the consonants as well as the clusters <em>pl pr pw ps pš bl br bw (tš dž) kw gw</em>
+were allowed. (The parenthesized clusters did not exist in
+proto-Bloppabop.) At the end of a syllable, all consonants were
+allowed, but were restricted based on the consonant that followed. At
+the end of a word, <em>p m s l r f v š ž b</em> were allowed.
+<br>Starts at sound change 41 (ŋ &gt; g)<br><br>
+<p class="topic">
+Išena Mir to Tuppy (~8400)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The postalveolar affricates <b>tš dž</b> changed to <em>ts dz</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; <b>ŋ</b> was denasalized to <em>g</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The velar stops <b>k g</b> changed to <em>tš dž</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Debra shift?? Same conditions as Poswa.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The palatalized consonants <b>tʲ nʲ</b> changed to <em>ṣ ẓ</em> in all positions (distinct from f v, unlike Poswa).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The labialized velar stops <b>kʷ gʷ</b> changed to <em>k g</em> before /i/ and /u/, but remained as they were before /a e o/ (and y). What about "taky" etc?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The dental fricatives <b>ṣ ẓ</b> changed into stops <em>ṭ ḍ</em> after consonants and at the beginnings and ends of words.  <b>f v</b> in these positions became <em>pf bv</em> (sometimes spelled ṗ ḅ).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The clusters <b>pr br</b> became <em>pf bv</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The clusters <b>pf bv</b> became <em>p b</em> before a rounded vowel or a /w/.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The velar stops <b>k g</b> became <em>h r</em> intervocalically.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Remaining <b>r</b> became <em>g</em> after consonants.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   THe clusters <b>tš dž</b> simplified to <em>t d</em> when not before a front vowel.  Maybe stays tš word-initially.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Final unaccented <b>e</b> became <em>i</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The vowel <b>u</b>, when not adjacent to a labialized consonant, became <em>y</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The clusters <b>kʲ gʲ</b> became <em>tš dž</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Vowels before labialized consonants became rounded: <b>a e i o u y</b> became <em>o u î u u u</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Unaccented double consonants became single. This is the only source of later final -k that is not after /o/ or /u/.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The vowel <b>î</b> became <em>y</em> (even though the existing 'y' vowel was /1/).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Be braver with diphthongs?? Maybe -ae- changes to -ou- or -au- with labialized consonants nearby.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Final /y/ disappeared, even if leaving a cluster behind.   Also /e/ (only in loans).   Maybe delete ALL /y/, and have new /y/ come from labialized i.  Much of this disappearing /y/ would come from earlier /u/ that was not between labials ... this, in turn, could labialize before disappearing.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Diphthongs of all types were resolved in favor of the first v</li></ol>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="inverse">
+</p>
+	<p class="body">&nbsp;<br>
+</p> </td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="220"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Proto-Pupompom (5547) to Lypelpyp dialect (~8400)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;  (has tones??)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   All consonants became labialized before the back rounded vowels /o u y/, unless they were already palatalized. This could be restated as saying that the vowels <b>o u y</b> became <em>ʷo ʷu ʷy</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The unrounded velars <b>k g ŋ</b> became <em>tš dž ñ</em> unconditionally.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The consonant sequences <b>ps pš</b> became <em>ts tš</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The palatalized stops <b>tʲ kʲ</b> both became <em>tš</em> unconditionally.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The sequences <b>ʲy ʷy</b> changed to <em>ʲi ʷu</em>. (Thus <b>lʷypel</b> "scorpion" became <em>lʷupel</em>.)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The unstressed vowel <b>e</b> disappeared or turned to <em>i</em>, even in closed syllables (unlike Pabappa).  Unlike Poswa, clusters such as tš were allowed in word-final position.  Thus ñefatše "fairy" became ñefatš.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiced fricative <b>s</b> became <em>z</em> before a voiced stop (also others?).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The labialized velar consonants <b>kʷ gʷ ŋʷ</b> became <em>k g ŋ</em> unconditionally.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Labialization disappeared on all consonants.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The sequence <b>ʲa</b> became <em>ʲe</em>. <b>ʲu</b> became <em>ʲy</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Palatalization disappeared on all consonants.  Thus <b>ʲe ʲy</b> changed to simple <em>ē y</em>. (not ī?)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The clusters <b>pr br</b> changed to <em>f v</em> in initial position or after a consonant and <em>pf bv</em> intervocalically.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The clusters <b>pl bl</b> changed to <em>l l</em> in initial position or after a consonant and <em>tl dl</em> intervocalically.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The postalveolars <b>š tš ž dž</b> became <em>s ts z dz</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Clusters such as <b>mps mpš mpt</b> changed to the PoA of the second consonant.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The clusters <b>ts dz</b> became <em>t d</em> when not between vowels.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>ar or</b> changed to <em>ō</em> unconditionally.  <b>al</b> became <em>ae</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>ae el il</b> changed to <em>ē ē ī</em> unconditionally (but note that most inherited /el/ had changed to /il/ already).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequence <b>er</b> changed to <em>e</em> unconditionally (but note that most inherited /er/ had changed to /ir/ already).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The cluster <b>ts dz</b> became <em>ss zz</em> unconditionally.  (Thus most intervocalic /k/ was /ss/ now.)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sound <b>ŋ</b>, which at this time occurred only before back rounded vowels, became silent.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The clusters <b>dl tl</b> became <em>d t</em> between vowels.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The sequences <b>ol ul</b> became <em>ō ū</em>. (if have vowel length, where does ā come from?) WHere does short e come from?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The voiced fricative <b>z</b> became silent.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    Long <b>ē</b> became short <em>e</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    Double vowels became long.
+This happened in the year 6843.  Here the language splits into two dialects: one for lypelpyp, the other for Senem.
+<br>
+-------------------</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The double <b>ss</b> became <em>ś</em>, a glottalized fricative.  Also, <b>ps ts ks</b> became <em>pś tś kś</em>, and all 's' after a consonant in general became ś.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    The plain voiceless fricative <b>s</b> became voiced to <em>z</em> unless before a voiceless consonant.  Thus <i>festura</i> "bomb" remained so.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    aspiration develops on stops before or after voiceless consos. Howevere, double stops resisted this. (?)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    Clusters like <b>pn</b> assimilated nasally, to such as <em>mn</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    b d dž g &gt; m n ñ ŋ except in certain clusters or word-initially
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  </li>
+<li>&nbsp;    ś &gt; h after a stop.  Thus <b>pś tś</b> became <em>pʰ tʰ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+later this goes all to Palomino style</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    ś &gt; s.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;      p &gt; b except if asp
+(what about other stops&gt;)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    Long vowels became sequences of vowel + /w/.  (even ē, ī, etc)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    f &gt; h, unless in clusters like sf.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    GREAT VOWEL SHIFT <br><br>
+i &gt; e  <br>
+u &gt; i  <br>
+o &gt; u  <br>
+(conditrional of course)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;    some vowel + w sequences changd to rounded vowels.  Possibly all &gt; u except aw &gt; o. (unless there's a new ü)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li></ol>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="inverse">
+</p>
+	<p class="body">&nbsp;<br>
+</p> </td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="115"></td><td>
+<!-- pinna top-->
+<p class="topic">
+(Pre-)Bābākiam to Old Lunila (5700)
+</p>
+<br>Note that this language preserves č.
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp; Long vowels in initial syllables became double: <b>ā ī ū</b> became <em>aa ii uu</em>. </li>
+<li>&nbsp;The bilabial approximant <b>w</b> became <em>v</em> before any vowel, <em>f</em> before any voiceless consonant, and <em>b</em> before any voiced consonant or at the end of a word.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The consonant <b>s</b> became <em>ž</em> before any voiced consonant (soon to change to /l/).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The fricative <b>ž</b> changed to <em>l</em> in all positions except after a voiceless consonant,
+in which case it changed to <em>š</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The short vowels <b>a i u</b> changed to <em>ă e o</em> in all closed syllables, unless (for /i u/) they were preceded by another of the same vowel earlier in the word.  (Or maybe just the accented silab.)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The short vowel <b>a</b> became <em>o</em> when touching any "dark" consonant (velars).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The short vowel <b>ă</b> became <em>o</em> when touching any "dark" or "round" consonant (velars and labials).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The short vowels <b>a ă</b> became <em>e</em> when touching any "light" consonant (palatalized).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The short vowel <b>y</b> became <em>u</em> when touching any "round" consonant (labials).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The short vowel <b>y</b> became <em>i</em> when touching any "light" consonant (palatals).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The short vowel <b>u</b> became <em>y</em> when touching any "light" consonant (palatals).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The short vowel <b>ă</b> became <em>y</em> when before or after a syllable with a high vowel.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The voiceless alveolar stop <b>t</b> became <em>d</em> between two vowels.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;Vowel length disappeared in all situations.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The palatalized nasals <b>mʲ nʲ ŋʲ</b> turned into <em>ñ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The velar (and palatal) consonants <b>k č ŋ ñ</b> became <em>t t n n</em> unconditionally.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The labiovelar consonants <b>kʷ gʷ (ŋʷ)</b> became <em>k g ŋ</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;The labialized dental/alveolar consonants <b>tʷ dʷ sʷ šʷ lʷ</b> became <em>p b f f w</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;Labialization and palatalization disappeared on all consonants. (?)
+</li>
+</ol>
+<!-- pinna bot
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+-->
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<!---   BEGINNING --->
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="185"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Khulls to Proto-Lámū-Xaran&nbsp; (5547)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+Initial phoneme inventory: /p pʷ m mʷ w t n s l r š ž j k ŋ x ɣ kʷ ŋʷ xʷ ɣʷ ʔ h ʢ hʷ ʢʷ ġʷ/ for consonants and /a e i o u ə/ with four tones for vowels.  Dipthongs are not distinguished from vowel sequences and are mostly determined by accentuation patterns and tone.
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;   The plain voiceless stops <b>ṗ ṭ ḳ</b> became ejectives <em>ṕ t́ ḱ</em> when they occurred as the onset of a stressed syllable.  But the spelling was retained.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The vowels <b>á é í ó ú</b> merged into <em>ā ē ī ō ū</em> because the sandhi effect they had had on surrounding syllables was lost.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  All voiced stops became plain voiceless stops unconditionally, thus phonemicizing the distinction between plain and ejective stops.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The rounded vowels <b>o u</b> changed to <em>ɜ ɨ</em> unconditionally.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Syllabic consonants became geminates, or plain if a geminate was not possible.  If even a simple consonant was not possible, an /ɨ/ was inserted. e.g. ġʷṁma "very dark-skinned"  ---&gt; ġʷɨ̀mma.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+</ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="220"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+ Proto-Lámū-Xaran to Proto-Xaran&nbsp; (6618)
+</p>
+ Xara is the language of the Khulls people who moved deep into Poswob territory and are not Moonshines or Lamuans.
+<p class="body">
+Initial phoneme inventory: ???
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;   All plain voiceless stops became voiced, except when occurring in clusters in which at least one other consonant was voiceless.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Ejective stops became geminate voiceless stops, except at the beginning or end of a word.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Between TWO labialized consonants, the short vowels <b>a e i ɜ ɨ</b> changed to <em>ɔ ø y o u</em>.  Thus there were now ten vowels in the Xaran language, but eight of them were quite rare and five of them could only occur between two labialized consonants and were always short.  Long vowels remained unchanged here.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   After a front vowel (including a rounded one), all velar consonants became post-alveolar.  In word-final position, they changed further into simple alveolars (?).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>āʷ ēʷ īʷ ɜ̄ʷ ɨ̄ʷ</b> changed to <em>ɔ̄ er ir ō ū</em>. (The alveolar r was spelled ř now.)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>ɔʷ øʷ yʷ oʷ uʷ</b> changed to <em>ō ø̄ ȳ ō ū</em>.  Thus all final labialized consonants had been defeated.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiceless fricatives <b>hʷ ʕʷ</b> became <em>fʷ vʷ</em>.  This change did not affect /xʷ gʷ/.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>ʷa ʷe ʷi ʷɜ ʷɨ ʷɔ ʷø ʷy ʷo ʷu</b> changed to <em></em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>ʷā ʷē ʷī ʷɜ̄ ʷɨ̄ ʷɔ̄ ʷø̄ ʷȳ ʷō ʷū</b> changed to <em></em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The sequences <b>er ir</b> became <em>ea ia</em>.  These were true diphthongs.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Consonants became palatalized before /ɨ i/ followed by another vowel, or at the end of a word (?).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Labialization spread in certain consonant clusters. e.g. kʷt at the beginning of a word ---&gt; kʷtʷ.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The unaccented short vowels <b>ɜ ɨ</b> were deleted unless an unacceptable consonant cluster would have resulted.  Thus kàlɜ "bubble" ---&gt; kal. (k was aspirated.) sɜgen "honey" ---&gt; sgen (if g still survives). When accented, they merged as <em>ə</em>.  Thus ġɜ̀ta "poison" ---&gt; ġə̀ta.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The long vowels <b>ɜ̄ ɨ̄</b> changed to <em>ē ī</em> unconditionally.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+</ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="115"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Ukieipi to Classical Moonshine (6800)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+Moonshine inherited the phonology of a dialect of Ukieipi consisting of the consonants <em>p m f b w t n s k ŋ š ž j</em> and the vowels <em>a i u ə</em>, the last of which was a schwa.  Unlike the dialect that produced Bloppabop, the consonants <em>k ŋ</em> were true velars.  Of the consonants, all except <em>b w ž j</em> could be followed by a semivowel <em>w</em> or <em>j</em>, when occurring at the beginning of a syllable.  At the end of a syllable, only <em>p m w s j</em> could occur.  From this state the following sound changes occurred:
+<br><br>
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp; At the end of a syllable, <b>ɣ</b> disappeared and changed
+the previous vowel to a high tone. It also voiced the following
+consonant. No new consonants arose from this change, but some voiced
+ones now became less restricted in their distribution.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The bilabial approximant <b>w</b> changed to <em>v</em> before a vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Then <b>l</b> became <em>w</em> in all positions, although it had an allophone as a voiced uvular fricative before vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Sequences of two vowels in which the first vowel was <b>i</b> or <b>u</b>
+became rising diphthongs. Then all clusters of consonant + semivowel
+came to be pronounced as coarticulated single consonants. Thus <b>pua</b> became <em>pʷa</em>, <b>pia</b> became <em>pʲa</em>, and so on.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced labialized fricatives <b>vʷ zʷ ɣʷ</b> coalesced as <em>w</em> between vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced palatalized fricatives <b>vʲ zʲ ɣʲ</b> coalesced as <em>j</em> between vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced fricative <b>v</b> changed to <em>w</em> between vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced labialized stops <b>bʷ dʷ ǯʷ gʷ</b> changed to <em>b</em> between vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced palatalized stops <b>bʲ dʲ ǯʲ gʲ</b> changed to <em>ǯ</em> between vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced stops <b>b d ǯ g</b> changed to <em>β ð ž ɣ</em> between vowels.
+ </li><li>&nbsp;  The voiced fricatives <b>ð z ɣ</b>
+became silent between vowels and occasionally in initial position (due
+to compounding). However, in many words the fricatives later reappeared
+as voiced stops due to analogy (e.g. <b>via</b>, locative <b>vinta</b>; later <em>vida</em>, <em>vida</em>).
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Sequences of a nasal plus a voiceless stop changed into a voiced stop at the same POA.  The preceding vowel became long.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Voiceless stops changed to voiced stops between vowels unless a voiceless sound began the previous syllable.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>s</b> and <b>ʔ</b> before a stop disappeared; the <b>s</b> lengthened the preceding vowel. (year
+, contemporary with Iaubiai)
+</li><li>&nbsp; The velar stops <b>k ŋ</b> changed to the glottals <em>ʔ ~</em> in final position.  These came to be considered as allophones of <b><font color="#000000">p m</font></b> rather than <b><font color="#000000">k ŋ</font></b> because of the orthographical influence of the still-intelligible Ižda Mir, where they were now pronounced as those sounds.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized postalveolar consonants <b>čʲ ǯʲ</b> were depalatalized.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labialized postalveolars <b>čʷ ǯʷ</b> became <em>kʷ gʷ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatalized velar consonants <b>hʲ ɣʲ kʲ ŋʲ gʲ</b> became <em>š ž č ñ ǯ</em> in all positions.
+ </li><li>&nbsp; The uvular <b>r</b> became the alveolar trill <em>ř</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The consonants <b>wʷ</b>, <b>wʲ</b>, <b>jʷ</b>, and <b>jʲ</b>, which had arisen through grammatical reanalyses, shifted to <em>r</em>, <em>ř</em>, <em>ř</em>, and <em>l</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Before <b><font color="#000000">u</font></b>, <b>w</b> became a uvular <em>r</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Before <b><font color="#000000">i</font></b>, <b>j</b> became <em>l</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Unstressed prefixes beginning with <b>h</b> or <b>ɣ</b> became silent and affected the voicing of the consonant that followed.  Thus voiceless nasals were created.  (<b><font color="#000000">ř</font></b> could not at this time occur word-initially.)
+</li><li>&nbsp; The velar consonants  <b>h ɣ</b> became the postalveolars <em>š ž</em>  before the vowel <em>i</em> (which at this time was the only front vowel in the language).
+</li><li>&nbsp; The parent language <b>u</b> vowel was lowered to <em>o</em>.  The diphthong <b>uu</b> became <em>ou</em> and <b>ui</b> became <em>oi</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Certain vowel sequences separated by <b>v</b> lost it and lengthened the first vowel: <b>iva ova ava</b> became <em>īa ōa ā</em>.  Meanwhile <b>ivo ovo avo</b> became <em>īo ō ō</em> and <b>ivi ovi avi</b> changed to <em>ī ē ē</em>.  <b>ivə ovə avə</b> became <em>ū ō ā</em>.  Sequences of this type that began with schwa remained, except for <b>əvə</b> which went to <em>ə̄</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; All diphthongs were monophthongized.  The parent language <b>au</b> became <em>ō</em>, which had been its dominant allophone for quite a long time.
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>ou</b> became <em>ō</em>,
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>oi</b> and <b>iu</b> merged as <em>ū</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Meanwhile <b>ai</b> became <em>ē</em>,
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>əi</b> became <em>e</em>,
+</li><li>&nbsp;  and <b>əu</b> became <em>u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The long schwa <b>ə̄</b> became a normal schwa <em>ə</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Labialized consonants were delabialized before back vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labialized consonants <b>tʷ dʷ nʷ sʷ</b> shifted to <em>kʷ gʷ ŋʷ hʷ</em> before <em><font color="#000000">a à ā á</font></em> and schwa.
+<br>  The Moonshine language at this point had the consonants   <em>
+/p b m w f pʲ mʲ t n s tʲ nʲ sʲ č ñ š ž j k ŋ h ɣ kʷ ŋʷ hʷ/
+</em> and the vowels
+<em>/a ā e ē i ī o ō u ū ə/</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The cluster <b>khʷ</b> became a simple <em>kʷ</em> in all positions. (year
+; contemporary with the earliest stages of Izda Mir) ... this is
+		when Khulls merges in!  <span style="color: #FF00a0; font-weight: bold">: ) : ) : ) : ) : ) </span></li><li>&nbsp; Clusters of any consonant plus a nasal simplified to single consonants: <b>n</b> disappeared and lengthened the previous vowel; <b>s</b> made the nasal voiceless, disappeared and lengthened the previous vowel; <b>ʔ</b> disappeared and raised the tone of the previous vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Syllable-final <b>ʔ n s</b> were grammatically analogized to the consonants <b>k ŋ h</b> between two of the same vowel, which then became <em>ʔ n s</em> and deleted the final vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; A schwa following another vowel disappeared and made that vowel a long vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Unaccented short schwas were lost. Because the language
+had a very active compounding system, this shift led to a steep
+increase in the number of types of allowable consonant clusters, as
+well as new consonants allowed in final position. </li><li>&nbsp; Syllable-final <b>s</b> after a vowel disappeared and made the preceding consonant voiceless and aspirated.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Syllable-final <b>s</b> after a consonant disappeared and made that consonant into an alveolar.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Unaccented <b>e</b> and <b>o</b> became <em>a</em>, often spelled as schwa or as ʕ, the vowel separator.  If high tone, this was replaced by ʔ, the glottal stop.  However, in neither case was this sound actually pronounced; it merely affected surrounding consonants for a short period of time after the shift.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Unaccented <b>i</b> and <b>u</b> came to spelled as
+palatalized/labialized consonants followed by a schwa, which had merged
+in with these. Thus the old glyphs for coarticulated consonants were
+revived, and stress was no longer fixed on the first syllable of the
+word even when the first vowel in the word wasn't a schwa. There was
+now only one orthographic unaccented vowel in the language: the schwa,
+which was now often unwritten. Unaccented <em>i</em> and <em>u</em> were written as part of the preceding consonant (the syllable was always open).
+ Consonant clusters simplified according to the following rules:
+</li><li>&nbsp; Labialized consonants (<b>kʷ ŋʷ hʷ</b>) in final position (or at the beginning of a cluster) became plain and added a <em>w</em> glide to the preceding vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Palatalized consonants (<b>pʲ mʲ tʲ nʲ sʲ č ñ š ž</b>) in final position or at the beginning of a cluster became plain and added a <em>j</em> glide to the preceding vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Doubled consonants simplified to singles and caused the tone of the preceding vowel to become high.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Any consonant before a nasal disappeared and lengthened
+the preceding vowel. If the sound had been voiceless, it caused the
+tone of the preceding vowel to become high. If it had been voiced, it
+caused the tone of the preceding vowel to become low. </li><li>&nbsp; Any remaining <b>ʷ</b> trapped between consonants became <em>u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Any remaining <b>ʲ</b> trapped between consonants became <em>i</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>φ</b> and <b>β</b> changed to <em>w</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Aspirated consonants became voiceless.
+</li><li>&nbsp; In unaccented syllables, all vowels became short.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Nonpalatalized alveolar consonants became velarized (not shown in the orthography).
+<br>  The Moonshine language at this point had the consonants
+<br>
+<table>
+<tbody><tr><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50">
+<em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>
+     </em></td><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> p   </em></td><td><em> b   </em></td><td><em> f   </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em> m   </em></td><td><em> mʰ  </em></td><td><em> w   </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> pʲ  </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em> mʲ  </em></td><td><em> mʲʰ </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> t   </em></td><td><em> d   </em></td><td><em> s   </em></td><td><em> z   </em></td><td><em> n   </em></td><td><em> nʰ  </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> tʲ  </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em> sʲ  </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em> nʲ  </em></td><td><em> nʲʰ </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> č   </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em> š   </em></td><td><em> ž   </em></td><td><em> ñ   </em></td><td><em> ñʰ  </em></td><td><em> j   </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> k   </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em> h   </em></td><td><em> ɣ   </em></td><td><em> ŋ   </em></td><td><em> ŋʰ  </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> ʔ   </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+</tbody></table>
+<br> and the vowels
+<em>/a ā e ē i ī o ō u ū ə/</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; An old method of deriving verbs from nouns by
+truncating the word after the first vowel, and lengthening that vowel
+if there was any missing info began to take over now. Although this was
+not a true sound change, it affected the general language more than any
+of the sound changes on the list. <br>
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>o ò</b> changed to schwa in unaccented position and <em>a</em> in accented position.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>ō ó</b> changed to <em>o ò</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The vowel sequences <b>aj ej ij oj uj</b> became <em>ē i ī i ī</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp;   The vowel sequences <b>aw ew iw ow uw</b> became <em>ō u ū u ū</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+The consonant cluster <b>řp</b> became <em>lp</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Following an accented syllable in a word of three or more syllables, all vowels became schwa.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Following an accented syllable in a word of two syllables or less, the consonant sequences <b>ts ns ss</b> changed to <em>`ts z s</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Following an accented syllable in word-final position, the syllables <b>ka ke ki ko ku</b> became <em>ʔ ʔč ʔč ʔt ʔt</em>.  Before another consonant, they all became <em>ʔ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  All consonant clusters except those beginning with <b>s</b> became homorganic; the <b>s-</b> clusters did not retain any distinction based on point of articulation but instead shifted the <b>s-</b> to <em>š</em> except before another <em>s</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The cluster <b>sw</b> (spelled <b>sbʷ</b>) became a bilabial <em>v</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>sb</b> shifted to <em>žb</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Before front vowels, <b>k g ŋ</b> shifted to <em>č ǯ ñ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Between two unstressed vowels, all labial consonants
+except rounded bilabials disappeared unless a string of three vowels
+would be created. </li><li>&nbsp;            Before a vowel, unaccented <b>ə</b> changed to <em>u</em>, which then shifted to the labial glide <em>w</em> in syllable-initial position and otherwise created a labialized consonant.  (year
+; same as 26 in Izda Mir)
+   </li><li>&nbsp;            Before a vowel, unaccented <b>a</b> changed to <em>i</em> ("the karaoke shift"), which then shifted to the palatal glide <em>j</em>
+in syllable-initial position and otherwise created a palatalized
+consonant. Like the new labialized consonants, palatalized consonants
+could occur only before a vowel, but in orthography they could occur
+before other consonants because they were used to denote whole
+unstressed syllables. However, the only vowel allowed in these
+unstressed syllables was the epenthetic schwa, and during the following
+sound changes this schwa often disappeared. </li><li>&nbsp;    The labials <b>pʲ bʲ mʲ</b> became the labiodentals <em>ṗ ḅ ṃ</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The dentals <b>fʲ vʲ</b> changed to <em>f v</em> before vowels, but to <em>fĭ vĭ</em> elsewhere.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The alveolars <b>tʲ dʲ sʲ zʲ nʲ</b> became the dentals <em>ṭ ḍ ṣ ẓ ṇ</em> in all positions.  <b>lʲ</b> became <em>j</em> and <b>řʲ</b> became <em>ř</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The dorsals <b>kʲ hʲ rʲ</b> became the palatals <em>č š j</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labialized postalveolar consonants <b>čʷ ǯʷ šʷ žʷ ñʷ</b> became delabialized.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The palatal consonants <b>č ǯ š ž ñ</b> became <em>c ʒ s z n</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The rounded labials <b>pʷ bʷ mʷ fʷ vʷ</b> became the plain labials <em>pŭ bŭ mŭ fŭ vŭ</em> before a consonant.
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The labialized alveolars <b>tʷ dʷ sʷ zʷ nʷ řʷ</b> became plain alveolars <em>t d s z n ř</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  Before a vowel, <b>lʷ</b> became <em>w</em>, but elsewhere it changed to <em>lŭ</em>.
+<br> <em> &nbsp;   </em>
+</li><li>&nbsp;    The dorsals <b>kʷ hʷ rʷ</b> became <em>w</em> before a consonant, while also lengthening the preceding vowel.
+<br> <em>   </em>
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labiodentals <b>ṗ ḅ ṃʰ ṃ</b> and the dentals <b>ṭ ḍ ṇʰ ṇ</b> became <em>c ʒ ns nz</em> in word-final position.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The dentals <b>ṗ ḅ ṃʰ ṃ ṭ ḍ ṇʰ ṇ</b> became the affricates <em>pf bv mf mv tṣ dẓ nṣ nẓ</em>, but there was no change in spelling.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The affricates <b>pf bv mf mv tṣ dẓ nṣ nẓ</b> became <em>f v f v ṣ ẓ ṣ ẓ</em> in initial position and after a consonant.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Epenthetic schwas after previously labialized and palatalized consonants disappeared.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Nasals disappeared before a fricative.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The affricates <b>mbʷ mb mḅ nḍ nd nǯ ŋg</b> shifted to <em>bʷ b ḅ ẓ ʒ ǯ g</em> in all positions.  If the preceding vowel had been long, it became short.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The affricates <b>mpʷ mp mṗ nṭ nt nč ŋk</b> shifted to <em>pʷ p ṗ ẓ ʒ ǯ g</em> in all positions.  If the preceding vowel had been long, it became short.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Unstressed <b>ər</b> shifted to <em>o</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  <b>š</b> before a nasal changed to <em>ž</em> and the nasal changed into a voiced stop.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The velar stops <b>k g</b> were fronted to <em>č ǯ</em> unless they occurred in a cluster after another consonant and before <b><font color="#000000">a o u</font></b>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Labialization was lost on all consonants.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>šb</b> and <b>bš</b> were devoiced to <em>šp</em> and <em>pš</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The clusters <b>žp</b> and <b>pž</b> became <em>žb</em> and <em>bž</em> respectively.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Velar stops in accented syllables before another
+syllable beginning in a velar were fronted to postalveolar affricates
+before front vowels, and otherwise to alveolar stops.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Alveolar stops in accented syllables before another syllable beginning in an alveolar became postalveolar affricates.
+</li><li>&nbsp; A bilabial sound in an accented syllable before a
+syllable beginning in a labiodental sound became labiodental. A
+labiodental sound in an accented syllable before a syllable beginning
+in a bilabial became bilabial.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp; Sonority hierarchy shifts: #hp ---&gt; #kf̥ etc
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp; After a vowel, the consonant clusters <b>ṿt ṿd</b> merged as <em>d</em>.  If after /u/ or /o/, that vowel became long.
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp; After a vowel, the consonant clusters <b>gč gǯ</b> (g is ɣ) changed to <em>ġ</em> (a voiced velar stop).
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li><li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<br>  The Moonshine language at this point had the consonants
+<p></p><p class="mid">
+<br>
+<table>
+<tbody><tr><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50">
+<em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>
+     </em></td><td width="50"><em>     </em></td><td width="50"><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> p   </em></td><td><em> b   </em></td><td><em> fʷ  </em></td><td><em> vʷ  </em></td><td><em> m   </em></td><td><em> mʰ  </em></td><td><em> w   </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> ṗ   </em></td><td><em> ḅ   </em></td><td><em> f   </em></td><td><em> v    </em></td><td><em> ṃ  </em></td><td><em> ṃʰ </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> t   </em></td><td><em> d   </em></td><td><em> s   </em></td><td><em> z   </em></td><td><em> n   </em></td><td><em> nʰ  </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> ṭ   </em></td><td><em> ḍ   </em></td><td><em> ṣ   </em></td><td><em> ẓ   </em></td><td><em> ṇ  </em></td><td><em> ṇʰ </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> č   </em></td><td><em> ǯ   </em></td><td><em> š   </em></td><td><em> ž   </em></td><td><em> ñ   </em></td><td><em> ñʰ  </em></td><td><em> j   </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> k   </em></td><td><em> g   </em></td><td><em> h   </em></td><td><em> ɣ   </em></td><td><em> ŋ   </em></td><td><em> ŋʰ  </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+<tr><td><em> ʔ   </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>     </em></td><td><em>    </em></td></tr>
+</tbody></table>
+</p><p class="body">
+<br> and the vowels
+<em>/a ā e ē i ī o ō u ū ə/</em>.
+<br><br>
+The alphabet now consisted of the consonants <em>/p b ṗ ḅ f v m mʰ w t ṭ d ḍ s z ṣ ẓ n nʰ š ž k g ŋ ŋʰ h x l ř j r/</em> and the vowels <em>/a e i o u ə ā ē ī ō ū ə̄ à è ì ò ù ə̀ á é í ó ú ə́/</em>.
+This is considered to be the state of classical Moonshine, also known as Rúló.
+</p></ol>
+<br><br><br>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="50"></td><td>
+<p class="topic">
+Rúló to Xykhasl (year 12850 AD)
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp; Intervocalically, the dental consonants <b>ṗ ḅ ṭ ḍ</b> came to be written as <em>pf bv tṣ dẓ</em>, and to be treated as consonant clusters.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  In word-initial position and after another consonant they became the plain fricatives <em>f v ṣ ẓ</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The vowel <b>/u/</b> came to be spelled <em><font color="#000000">/ū/</font></em>; this was a spelling change rather than a phonetic one.
+</li><li>&nbsp; In bisyllabic roots, if the vowel in the second syllable was rounded, the vowels in the first syllable changed from <b>/a e i o ū ə/</b> to <em>/â ū y ô y u/</em>, where
+<b><font color="#000000">â</font></b> spells the SAMPA sound <em>Q</em>,
+<b><font color="#000000">ū</font></b> spells <em>u:</em>,
+<b><font color="#000000">ô</font></b> spells <em>u:</em>,
+and <b><font color="#000000">y</font></b> spells <em>y</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; If the vowel in the second syllable was <em>/i/</em>, then <b>/o ū/</b> in the first syllable changed to <em>/oj ūj/</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; High tone vowels came to be distinguished primarily by
+being lax rather than by being of high pitch. Allophonic pitch
+distinctions began to arise, and soon tone had been completely replaced
+by laxness.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Consonant clusters and final consonants, aside from <em>c ʒ č ǯ</em> were simplified: any <b>/p/</b> or <b>/š/</b> at the end of a syllable disappeared and made the preceding vowel into a lax vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; (although in the case of <b>žb</b> and <b>šp</b>, the <b>ž</b> and <b>š</b>
+survived and the labials didn't). Double consonants and affricates
+simplified to singles and also laxed the preceding vowel. Final <b>/m/</b>
+disappeared with no effect, although it began to spread as an allophone
+to places in which it had never been before. Voiceless nasals also
+laxed the preceding vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The dental fricatives <b>f v</b> changed to <em>ṣ ẓ</em> at the beginning of a word and between vowels.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The postalveolar affricates <b>č ǯ</b> became the fricatives <em>š ž</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The alveolar stops <b>t d</b> and the affricates <b>c ʒ</b> merged as <em>č ǯ</em> before front vowels.  In other positions they remained the same.
+</li><li>&nbsp; In clusters the dental fricatives <b>ṣ ẓ</b> became the alveolar stops <em>t d</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; All unstressed short vowels were reduced to the set <em>/ă ĭ u ə/</em>.   If they had been lax, they also laxed the preceding vowel.
+</li><li>&nbsp; After a vowel, <b>wĭ</b> changed to <em>j</em>,
+</li><li>&nbsp; <b>sĭ</b> changed to <em>š</em>,
+</li><li>&nbsp; and <b>kĭ</b> and <b>tĭ</b> coalesced as <em>tš</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Unaccented long vowels and diphthongs were reduced to the monophthongs <em>a e i o u y</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  The remaining long vowels <b>ā ē ī ō ū ȳ ə̄</b> changed to <em>a aj i aw ū y ə</em>.  The letter <em>ū</em> was not a true long vowel any longer, but only a higher and clearer version of <em>u</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; All final vowels in bisyllabic roots were deleted.  If the vowel deleted was <b>ĭ</b>, the vowels in the first syllable changed from <b>/a à è ì ə/</b> to <em>/aj àj e i ĭ/</em>.
+In compound words and certain inflected forms, the second vowel in the
+word was deleted if the resulting consonant cluster was acceptable
+("the Debra shift"). If the second vowel occurred between two labial
+consonants, the first labial consonant was deleted and the second was
+metathesized so that it took the place of the first. Then the place of
+articulation of that consonant changed to match the vowel it occurred
+next to, as the vowel was deleted. </li><li>&nbsp; <b>u ù</b> became fronted to mid vowels but there was
+no change in spelling. All roots that came from Rúló had been either
+one or two syllables. With this sound shift they nearly all came to be
+one syllable, although due to changes in grammar they were almost
+always used with a suffix containing a vowel and thus adding a
+syllable. That is to say, the suffixes from the old monosyllables were
+applied to these new monosyllables, making the old suffixes and infixes
+for bisyllables obsolete.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The dental fricatives <b>ṣ ẓ</b> changed back to <em>f v</em> in all positions.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labiodental fricatives <b>f v</b> became <em>h x</em> in word-initial position before a back vowel and between a back vowel and another vowel of any type;
+</li><li>&nbsp; In clusters the labiodental fricatives <b>f v</b> became <em>p b</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Before the front vowels <em>e è i ì û ú</em>, the velar stops <b>k</b> and <b>g</b> were fronted to the postalveolar affricates <em>č</em> and <em>ǯ</em>, which were considered single phonemes rather than clusters.
+</li><li>&nbsp; At the end of a closed syllable the bilabial stop <b>b</b> came to be pronounced as <em>/ə/</em>, with a common allophone of <em>[w]</em>; however there was no change in the native spelling.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  At the end of a closed syllable the bilabial stop <b>p</b> came to be pronounced as <em>[ʔ]</em>, however there was no change in the native spelling.  That is, the ligatures of <em>vowel</em> + <em>p</em>, which are transliterated with grave accents, continued to be used.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The labiodental fricatives <b>f v</b> became the bilabial stops <em>p b</em>
+in all positions, although at the end of a few words they disappeared
+completely. They were spelled with the letters for the "hard" <em>p b</em> because in some writings the letters for the ordinary <em>p b</em> were used for <em>/? ə/</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Voiced stops became prenasalized after a tense vowel;
+lax vowels before voiced stops became allophonically tense but did not
+gain prenasalization. </li><li>&nbsp; The lax/tense distinction in vowels disappeared,
+leaving vowel quality alone to distinguish them and meaning that
+glottal stops after certain vowels were no longer pronounced. However,
+the changes that the earlier system had inflicted on the consonants
+still remained.
+</li><li>&nbsp;  A chain shift occurred: the old vowel <b>ì</b> came to be pronounced as <em>e</em>, meaning that the old vowel <b>e</b> came to be pronounced as <em>ɛ</em>, which caused the old vowel <b>è</b> to become pronounced as <em>a</em>, which caused the old vowel <b>a</b> to become pronounced as a back <em>ɑ</em>.  Meanwhile a similar shift occurred in the back vowels:  <b>o</b> became <em>ɔ</em>, which caused <b>ò</b> to become a low back <em>ɒ</em>.  Now, only roundedness and frontness distinguished the two forms of <em>o</em> and <em>a</em>; the heights were the same.
+<br><br>
+<p class="topic">
+<small>Classical-Era Changes:</small>
+</p>
+</li><li>&nbsp; In some idiolects, a religious taboo forbade the pronunciation of the phonemes <b>k g</b> except when used for the names of the forces of good and evil; in other contexts they shifted to <em>/q G/</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Most speakers began to merge the new <b>q G</b> phonemes with <em>h x</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Roundedness disappeared on <em>o ò</em>, thus leaving only frontness to distinguish them from <em>a à</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; Unstressed <b>u</b> became a true schwa.  The script was now written with <em>u</em> as the inherent vowel (previously it was schwa).
+</li><li>&nbsp; <em>o ò</em> merged with <em>a à</em>.
+</li><li>&nbsp; The low vowel <b>a</b> rounded and moved to the back position and <b>à</b> became low to replace it.
+<br><br>
+The alphabet now consisted of the consonants
+<em>/p b š ž m w t d s z n j c ʒ č ǯ k g h x ŋ r l ř/</em>
+and the vowels
+<em>/@ i e E a A O o u y/</em>.
+<br> The spelling of the vowels was as such:
+<br><br>
+<table class="body">
+<tbody><tr><td>ə</td><td>i</td><td>e</td><td>ɛ</td><td>a</td><td>ɑ</td><td>ɔ</td><td>o</td><td>u</td><td>y</td><td>   </td></tr>
+<tr><td>u</td><td>i</td><td>ì</td><td>e</td><td>è</td><td>o</td><td>a</td><td>â</td><td>ô</td><td>û</td><td>   </td></tr>
+</tbody></table>
+o could also be spelled à, and a could also be spelled ò.
+This is considered to be the state of classical Laveti Moonshine.
+<br><br>
+<p class="topic">
+<small>Post-Classical Changes:</small>
+</p>
+</li><li>&nbsp; Letters with inherent vowels sometimes appeared as the
+onset of a stressed syllable (mostly in Bloppabop loans, but in a few
+native words also). Previously the <b>u</b> ones were pronounced with /w/, but that disappeared, and as it did so the ones with <b>a</b> became velarised and in some cases (especially velars) also labialized.
+</li></ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+	</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="65"></td><td>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="topic">
+Tapilula to Late Andanese (4178)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+Tapilula inherited from Standard Animal the phonology <em>p b m f fʷ w t d n s l j k ŋ ɣ h q ʔ a i u</em>, where <em>ʔ</em>
+represents a glottal stop. All syllables were open and all consonants
+could occur in all positions. There was a variable stress accent
+distinguishing three tones (<em>à ā á</em>) on the stressed syllable, although phonemically
+there were really only two tones, high and low, on both syllables: the three-tone system
+was brought up in sandhi only.  For final stress ther pattern is:
+Low-Low = Low /
+High-Low = Med /
+Low-High = High /
+High-High = High
+and for initial stress
+Low-Low = Low /
+High-Low = Med /
+Low-High = High /
+High-High = High (that is, it was the same.)  Med was originally "falling"
+, High "rising".
+Note that this should be about 85 changes to bring it in line with its neighbors!
+The Tapilula name for Andanese was <em>Sáŋəhʷṅe</em>.
+</p><ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Aspiration disappeared on all consonants. (?)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The accent pattern involved in certain infixes with accented schwa switched to favor the following vowel.  e.g. ăpo "field", apə̀ho "field (possessive) became <em>ăpo apəhò</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The "labial" vowel <b>y</b> (like /u/ but with flat lips) disappeared, syllabified nearby consonants or turned to <em>i</em> if the nearby consonants were not possible to become syllabic.  Thus new aspirated consonants were created: pʰ tʰ kʰ, as well as others.
+</li>
+ <li>&nbsp;  The labial stops <b>p b</b> both changed to <em>ʕʷ</em> except if they were: 1) After an accented or high-tone vowel (but not before); 2) In a consonant cluster of any kind; or 3) In a monosyllabic word.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The labial nasal <b>m</b> changed to <em>ṿ</em> when it preceded a vowel followed by a labial consonant (including /w/).  This change did not apply to the syllabic ṁ.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The alveolar voiceless stop <b>t</b> became <em>k</em> except if it was: 1) After an accented or high-tone vowel (but not before); 2) In a consonant cluster of any kind; or 3) In a monosyllabic word.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The labial approximants <b>ʕʷ hʷ</b> changed to <em>g h</em> when it preceded a vowel followed by a labial consonant (including /w/), and changed the pitch of the following vowel to high (3).  This is sometimes spelled ǵ h́.  (this was originaly near FAHAH but was moved up to match Ukieipi's version).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The voiceless fricative <b>s</b>, when it occurred in consonant clusters, changed to <em>h</em> (aspiration).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The glottalized stop <b>k̩</b> changed to a uvular <em>q</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The voiced stops <b>b d ġ</b> became voiceless.  The new <b>ṿ</b> sound became a voiceless <em>f</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The velar nasal <b>ŋ</b> changed to <em>n</em> in all positions. (?)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The voiceless fricative <b>s</b>, where it remained, changed to <em>z</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Instances of <b>u</b> before another vowel changed to <em>w</em> and this further changed into a labialized consonant if there was a consonant before it. This happened even if it was an accented syllable. This  was spelled "v" rather than "w".  However, words like kuùu "urine" ---&gt; kʷuu rather than kuvu.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  This was the stage of Old Andanese (year 1900), the same date as Ukieipi.  It was mostly confiend to Fox Island but some settlements had begun on the North peninsula.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The voiced fricative <b>z</b> became <em>g</em> in all positions, and caused the tone of the following vowel to become low (1).  This is sometimes spelled g̀.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Adabawa ---&gt; kʷ.  pʷ mʷ ---&gt; plain labials /p m/.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; ăe àe ---&gt; ĕ è (e.g. in păe "hip" ---&gt; pĕ).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; This is Late Old Andanese (2200 or so).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Labialized stops <b>pʷ tʷ kʷ</b> all changed to <em>p</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The labial fricative <b>f</b> changed to <em>h</em> in all positions, and changed the pitch of the following vowel to high (3).  This is sometimes spelled h́.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All remaining occurrences of the labial approximant <b>ʕʷ</b> changed to <em>l</em>. (CHANGE ID FAHAH)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The uvular stop <b>q</b> changed to the glottal stop <em>ʔ</em> unconditionally.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   "Old Andanese" was year 3300.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Note that there is no /s/ sound anymore!!
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The mid vowels <b>e o</b> changed to <em>i u</em> in all positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Nasalized vowels changed fricatives on either side of them into nasals.  Thus maɣĩ "soap" &gt; maŋi, nãɣi "comb" &gt; naŋi.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Nasalized vowels changed stops after them (but not before) into nasals.  Thus tãpa "vineyard" &gt; tama.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Nasalization disappeared everywhere.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Tones were eliminated except in syllables with no consonants.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Tones were eliminated.  Andanese now had only 9 consonants, 3 vowels, and no tones, and was entirely CV, thus making it the most phonologically simple language in the world.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The voiced pharyngeal fricative <b>ʕ</b> changed to <em>ŋ</em> in "some" positions.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+</ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="15"></td><td>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="topic">
+Pre-Proto-Tapilula to POP3 (4000 BC)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+Original phonology:<br>
+<br>   Pre-Proto-Tapilula, also known as Paleo-Southeast Laban, had 18 consonants ( <em>p b m w ṭ ḍ ṇ ḷ t d n l r j k ġ ŋ h </em>  ) and 4 vowels,<em> a i u ə</em> (schwa is spelled {y}).
+<br><br>V was really a spread-labial w, not actually /v/.  Nor was it wʲ or jʷ.  ɰ is silent, but separates vowels so that they arent
+dip[hthongs, and does have a sound between 2 identical vowels.
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The voiced velar sounds <b>g ġ</b> changed to <em>ž</em> before /i/, <em>v</em> before /u/, and disappeared otherwise.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The voiceless sound <b>h</b> changed to <em>š</em> before /i/, <em>f</em> before /u/, and disappeared otherwise.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   Are the above f/v distinct from rounded labials??  Or labiodentals?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  f &gt; v?
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The labiodental fricatives <b>f v</b> changed to <em>p b</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  <b>hʷ</b> became <em>h</em>. (???)
+</li>
+ <li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The dental sounds <b>ṭ ṇ ḷ ḍ</b> all coalesced as <em>v</em> (true v this time).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  All stops became voiceless.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The dental fricative <b>v</b> turned into a voiced bilabial stop <em>b</em>.  This was thus the only voiced stop in the language.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+</ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+</td>
+</tr></tbody></table>
+<table><tbody><tr><td width="15"></td><td>
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./pabappa28_files/europe.htm">
+<p class="topic">
+Silatibarra to Proto-Outer Poswob (1583)
+</p>
+<p class="body">
+Original phonology:<br>
+<br>pʷ mʷ w bʷ    ......    hʷ  ..... m: ṇ: n: ŋ: ..... voiceless nasals????
+<br>pʲ mʲ v bʲ
+<br>ṭ ṇ ḷ ḍ
+<br>t n l d s r
+<br>tl nl  dl sl
+<br>k ŋ ɰ ġ h
+<br><br>V was really a spread-labial w, not actually /v/.  Nor was it wʲ or jʷ.  ɰ is silent, but separates vowels so that they arent
+dip[hthongs, and does have a sound between 2 identical vowels.
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Tones became raised before voiceless consonants: ă --&gt; à; à --&gt; á. Note that the symbols are used slightly differently here from their usage in other lanmguages.  In the future, â is low tone (but usually unmarked); ă or à is medium tone; á is high tone.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; All prefixes came to have low tone, regardless of what consonant was before them.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The vowels <b>a e i</b> became <em>e i i</em> whenever not held down by other vowels, or by labialization.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;<s> The spread-labial sounds <b>pʲ mʲ v bʲ</b> all coalesced as <em>v</em> (true v this time).</s> <!-- BAD!!!!! -->
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The glottal fricative <b>h</b> became <em>š</em> when touching a front vowel (/e i/).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Rounded labials became plain labials in all words.  <b>hʷ</b> became <em>h</em>.
+</li>
+ <li>&nbsp;   The schwa vowel disappeared in all possible syllables, unless accented.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;   The dental sounds <b>ṭ ṇ ḷ ḍ</b> all coalesced as <em>v</em> (true v this time).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Any remaining schwa became <em>a</em>.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  All stops became voiceless.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; The dental fricative <b>v</b> turned into a voiced bilabial stop <em>b</em>.  This was thus the only voiced stop in the language.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  The laterals <b>tl nl</b> became plain <em>t n</em>.  (This was near the end of the time spent near Tapilula).
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; "Suppressed" tones were released.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp; Stops became allophonically voiced after a low tone.  Thus the distinction between /b/ and voiced /p/ was muddled.
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;  Stops became allophonically geminated after a high tone. (????)
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+<li>&nbsp;
+</li>
+</ol>
+</td></tr></tbody></table>
+</td>
+</tr></tbody></table>
+<div id="sawblade" align="bottom">
+</div>
+<!------ END MAIN CONTENT --->
+<!------ END MAIN CONTENT --->
+<!------ END MAIN CONTENT --->
+<!------ END MAIN CONTENT --->
+<!------ END MAIN CONTENT --->
+<!------ END MAIN CONTENT --->
+<!------ END MAIN CONTENT --->
+</td><td valign="top" bgcolor="#ffffff">
+<img src="./pabappa28_files/blank60.gif"></td><td valign="top">
+<!--- image and caption go here -->
+  </td></tr></tbody></table>
+<big><br><br>
+</big>
+<div id="sawblade" align="bottom">
+</div>
+</body></html>
 ==See also==