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| Line 2: |
Line 2: |
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|
| == Consonants == | | == Consonants == |
|
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| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
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|
| |
| {|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
| |
| |+Consonants
| |
| !
| |
| !Labial
| |
| !colspan=2|Alveolar
| |
| !Palatal
| |
| !Velar
| |
| !Glottal
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Nasal
| |
| | m ('''m''')
| |
| |colspan=2|n ('''n''')
| |
| | ɲ ('''ny''')
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Plosive
| |
| | p~b ('''p''')
| |
| |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
| |
| |
| |
| | k~g ('''g''')
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| | ʔ (''' ' ''')
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Affricate
| |
| |
| |
| | ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Continuant
| |
| |
| |
| | s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| | h~ɦ ('''h''')
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Semivowel
| |
| |
| |
| |colspan=2|
| |
| | j ('''y''')
| |
| | w ('''u''')
| |
| |
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
| |
| * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
| |
| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
| |
|
| |
| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
| |
|
| |
|
| == Vowels == | | == Vowels == |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+Vowels
| |
| !
| |
| !'''Front'''
| |
| !'''Back'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| !'''Close'''
| |
| |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| !'''Mid'''
| |
| |{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| !'''Open'''
| |
| |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
| |
| === Diphthongs ===
| |
|
| |
| Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
| |
|
| |
| == Phonotactics ==
| |
|
| |
| '''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese.
| |
|
| |
| * /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
| |
|
| |
| == Stress ==
| |
| [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV).
| |
|
| |
| =Word order=
| |
|
| |
| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
| |
|
| |
| AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
| |
|
| |
| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
| |
|
| |
| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
| |
| : <small>dog man see</small>
| |
| : ''The dog sees the man.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
| |
| : <small>man dog see</small>
| |
| : ''The man sees the dog.''
| |
|
| |
| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
| |
|
| |
| =Nouns=
| |
|
| |
| Nouns in '''Kala''' are inflected only for number. Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
| |
|
| |
| ==== Number Marking ====
| |
|
| |
| * Most nouns in '''Kala''' distinguish singular and plural number. There are several different “regular” ways to form the plural, which are to a certain degree predictable from the phonological shape of the singular form. Nouns can be marked [[wp:Plural|plural]] ('''PL''') by '''-m''' (or '''-lo''' if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
| |
| ** In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "dog three exist" keeps the word '''mita''' "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
| |
| ** The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning ‘group; collection; gathering’. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
| |
| ::
| |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>아다</b></big></font> - '''ata''' - name > <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>아다로</b></big></font> - '''atalo''' - names
| |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>미다</b></big></font> - '''mita''' – dog > <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>미담</b></big></font> - '''mitam''' - dogs > <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>티미다</b></big></font> - '''tlimita''' – a pack of dogs
| |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>야마</b></big></font> - '''yama''' – mountain > <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>티야마로</b></big></font> - '''tliyamalo''' – mountain ranges
| |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>자가</b></big></font> - '''tsaka''' – house > <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>티자가</b></big></font> - '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
| |
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>브그</b></big></font> - '''puku''' – clothing > <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>티브그</b></big></font> - '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
| |
|
| |
| =Determiners=
| |
|
| |
| The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
| |
|
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
| |
| * '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
| |
| * '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
| |
|
| |
| Examples:
| |
|
| |
| * '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''A few of these dogs''
| |
| * '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Many of those dogs (over there)''
| |
| * '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each of those dogs (near you)''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
| |
|
| |
| * '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
| |
| * '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
| |
| * '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
| |
| * '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
| |
| * '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
| |
| * '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
| |
| * '''maha''' - more; plus
| |
| * '''ohi''' - less; fewer
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| === correlative pronouns ===
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 900px;"
| |
| |+ uatse
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
| |
| ! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
| |
| ! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
| |
| ! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
| |
| ! Negative<br>'''-k'''
| |
| ! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! mo<br>''place''
| |
| | '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ko<br>''person''
| |
| | '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
| |
| |-
| |
| ! uku<br>''amount''
| |
| | '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ama<br>''time''
| |
| | '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
| |
| |-
| |
| ! so<br>''kind, type''
| |
| | '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
| |
| |-
| |
| ! no<br>''thing''
| |
| | '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
| |
| |-
| |
| ! to<br>''manner, way''
| |
| | '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| = Pronouns =
| |
|
| |
| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Personal pronouns:
| |
|
| |
| * '''na''' - 1st person
| |
| * '''ta''' - 2nd person
| |
| * '''ha''' - 3rd person
| |
| * '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Modifiers:
| |
|
| |
| * '''-m''' - plural
| |
| * '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
| |
| * '''e-''' - patient
| |
| * '''-i''' - reflexive
| |
| * '''-yo''' - possessive
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Other pronouns include:
| |
|
| |
| * '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
| |
| * '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
| |
| * '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
| |
| * '''nokua''' - everything
| |
| * '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
| |
| * '''nok''' - nothing
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+ nkalo
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Agent
| |
| ! Patient
| |
| ! Reflexive
| |
| ! Possessive
| |
| ! Reciprocal
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 1sg
| |
| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 2sg
| |
| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3sg
| |
| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 4sg
| |
| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
| |
| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 2pl
| |
| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3pl
| |
| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 4pl
| |
| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| =Verbs=
| |
|
| |
| Verbs in Kala are either active or or stative. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.
| |
|
| |
| ==== tense ====
| |
|
| |
| Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
| |
|
| |
| * The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
| |
| :'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
| |
|
| |
| * If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
| |
| :Example: '''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+ eme
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present
| |
| | '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past
| |
| | '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Recent Past
| |
| | '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''<br>(action just finished)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Remote Past
| |
| | '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate long ago.''<br>(before the lifetime of the speaker)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Future
| |
| | '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Immediate Future
| |
| | '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''<br>(within the day)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Distant Future
| |
| | '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''<br>(months from now)
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| ==== aspect ====
| |
|
| |
| There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]] aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+ ti'a
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Progressive
| |
| | '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Perfective
| |
| | '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Inchoative
| |
| | '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Frequentative
| |
| | '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| ==== mood ====
| |
|
| |
| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
| |
|
| |
| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
| |
| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
| |
|
| |
| ==== affix ordering ====
| |
|
| |
| Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning…their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adjectival, and plural ending are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
| |
|
| |
| <tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
| |
|
| |
| Example:
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Verb Stem
| |
| ! Size/Importance
| |
| ! Mood
| |
| ! Aspect
| |
| ! Tense
| |
| ! Negative
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa''' || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
| |
| |-
| |
| | run || DIM || ABIL || PROG || PST || NEG
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| * '''na empahipankoyek'''
| |
| : <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
| |
|
| |
| ==== relative ====
| |
| In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.
| |
|
| |
| * '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
| |
| * '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
| |
|
| |
| * '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
| |
| : <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
| |
| : ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ke naka patlole pako'''
| |
| : <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
| |
| : ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.
| |
|
| |
| * '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
| |
| : ''This is the house in which I live.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| = Adjectives =
| |
| Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
| |
| {{Col-begin}}
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
| |
| ** ''The dog hungers.''
| |
| ** ''The dog is hungry.''
| |
| ** ''The hungry dog.''
| |
| ** ''A hungry dog.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
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| ** ''The house is a little red.''
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| ** ''The light-red house.''
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| ** ''A pale red house.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
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| ** ''The coat is wet.''
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| ** ''The wet coat.''
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| ** ''A wet coat.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
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| ** ''The horses are extremely large.''
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| ** ''The very big horses.''
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| {{Col-end}}
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| ==== comparison ====
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| In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
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| : <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
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| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
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| : <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
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| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
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| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
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| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
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| {{col-end}}
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|
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| =Adverbs=
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|
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| =Prepositions=
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|
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|
| Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
| | == Prosody == |
| {{Col-begin}}
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| {{Col-2}}
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| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
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| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
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| * '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
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| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
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| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
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| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
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| * '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
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| * '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
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| * '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
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| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front
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| * '''maye''' - between; among
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| {{Col-2}}
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| * '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
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| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
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| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
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| * '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
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| * '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
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| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
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| * '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
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| * '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
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| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
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| * '''yomo''' - to the right of
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| * '''yoso''' - to the left of
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| {{Col-end}}
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|
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|
| | = Nominal Morphology = |
|
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|
| =Coordinating conjunctions= | | == Number == |
|
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| =Questions= | | == Pronouns == |
|
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| =Clauses= | | == Determiners == |
|
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| =Numbers= | | = Verbal Morphology = |
|
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| | == Tense == |
| |+
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| |-
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| |-
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| | '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
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| |-
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| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
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| |-
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| | '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
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| |-
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| | '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
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| |-
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| | '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
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| |-
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| | '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
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| |}
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|
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|
| ==== Forming Larger Numbers ==== | | == Mood & Aspect == |
|
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|
| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
| | == The copula == |
| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
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| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
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| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
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| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
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|
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| ==== Other Number Forms ==== | | = Syntax = |
|
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|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| | = Text = |
| |+
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| |-
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! ordinal
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| ! multiple
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| ! fractional
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| |-
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| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
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| |-
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| | '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth || '''tiueta'o'''<br>twelve times || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
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| |-
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| | '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
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| |-
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| | '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
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| |-
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| | '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
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| |}
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