Khulls nouns: Difference between revisions
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==Number== | |||
===Singular=== | |||
Most nouns are singular in their unarmed form. Exceptions use the singulative affix '''ṅ'''. | |||
===Dual=== | |||
The dual affix, '''-o''', is mostly confined to denoting human couples and certain paired objects such as double doors. It does not generally function as a generic marker for two of an object. Note that this is the same word as '''ô''' "married couple", the only difference being the loss of stress. | |||
===Plural=== | |||
The plural affix for all nouns is '''-yi'''. This is the same word, historically, as '''yî''' "book", because a book is a bundle of papers and this was extended by analogy to other objects. The parent language, [[Gold language|Gold]] had no plural marker, and this is why the plural markers are different in the various languages derived from it. | |||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
Revision as of 11:22, 16 December 2016
Khulls nouns inflect using a fusional declension system. Though not as complicated at that of Poswa, the declensions differ more from each other because Khulls uses a "discrete" declension system instead of deriving inflections based on every phoneme in the word, as does Poswa.
Noun declension tables
Primary vowel-stem declensions
Final unstressed short vowels
| Nominative | (English) | Accusative | Locative | Possessive | Dative | Circumstantial | Essive | Instrumental |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| òṭa | table, desk | oṭà | oṭâ | oṭas | oṭal | oṭan | oṭī | oṭō |
| ḳĭri | happiness, victory | ḳirì | ḳirî | ḳiris | ḳiril | ḳirin | ḳirĕ | ḳiġʷ |
| nìto | price, penalty | nitò | nitô | nitos | nitol | niton | nikʷ | nitū |
Nouns ending with final stressed short low-tone vowels follow the same patterns as above.
Final accent, high tone
This table shows nouns that are accented on their final syllable, with a short high-tone vowel at the end of the word:
| Nominative | (English) | Accusative | Locative | Possessive | Dative | Circumstantial | Essive | Instrumental |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| egà | daytime sky | egaḳà | egaḳâ | egaḳas | egaḳal | egaḳan | egaḳī | egaḳō |
| gʷì | beach | gʷiḳì | gʷiḳî | gʷiḳis | gʷiḳil | gʷiḳin | gʷiḳĕ | gʷiḳʷ |
| makò | seal (animal) | makoḳò | makoḳô | makoḳos | makoḳol | makoḳon | makoḳʷ | makoḳū |
| ʕʷè | tendril | ʕʷeḳà | ʕʷeḳâ | ʕʷeḳas | ʕʷeḳal | ʕʷeḳan | ʕʷeḳī | ʕʷeḳō |
Nouns ending in -ù follow the pattern for -ò, because they arose from labialization of a vowel that otherwise became /o/.
A "double essive" case is sometimes seen in the -ò declension, where the final labialized consonant loses its labialization and adds -ī.
Many nouns that end in a final high-tone short vowel historically ended with a final -ḳ. But after the vowel /u/, this consonant became a coarticulated labiovelar stop,[1] and was later retained as /ṗ/ when the velar stop otherwise disappeared. The same is true of the non-ejective version of this sound. Thus, words ending in -p or -ṗ decline following the patterns of the standalone word below, which means "teacher":
| Nominative | (English) | Accusative | Locative | Possessive | Dative | Circumstantial | Essive | Instrumental |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| p | teacher | p | pʷ | pṡ | pḷ | pṅ | pī | pō |
Nouns with word-final falling tone, long vowels
| Nominative | (English) | Accusative | Locative | Possessive | Dative | Circumstantial | Essive | Instrumental |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pā | school | pâ | pâ | pâs | pâl | pân | pê | pô |
| mī | bottle | bè | bê | bes | bel | ben | bē | bē |
| kʷō | bed | kʷaʕʷù | kʷaʕʷû | kʷaʕʷus | kʷaʕʷul | kʷaʕʷun | kʷaʕʷ | kʷaʕʷū |
Secondary vowel-stem declensions
| Nominative | (English) | Accusative | Locative | Possessive | Dative | Circumstantial | Essive | Instrumental |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| xʷèye | curved claw | |||||||
| kʷăkʷ | stone tablet | |||||||
| empĕ | sword | empyì | empyî | empyis | empyil | empyin | empĕ | empyŭ |
| mī | ||||||||
| ḳē | wheel | ḳê | ḳê | ḳês | ḳêl | ḳên | ḳê | ḳêʕʷ |
| lū | milk |
- NOTE, possibly eliminate the first two rows of the secondaries, since final -e and final -u can only come from stressed positions even if in a compound where they are unstressed, except for when the /e/ follows /u/, in which case it comes from /u/ or /a/.
Tertiary vowel-stem declensions
| Nominative | (English) | Accusative | Locative | Possessive | Dative | Circumstantial | Essive | Instrumental |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| atá | spirit | atakà | atakâ | atakas | atakal | atakan | atakī[2] | atakō |
| šonorí | depravity, perversion | šonorikà | šonorikâ | šonorikas | šonorikal | šonorikan | šonorikī[2] | šonorikō |
| ló | flower petal | lokà | lokâ | lokas | lokal | lokan | lokī[2] | lokō |
| lé | diaper | lekà | lekâ | lekas | lekal | lekan | lekī [2] | lekō |
| Nominative | (English) | Accusative | Locative | Possessive | Dative | Circumstantial | Essive | Instrumental |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| amâ | whip | amâ | amâ | amâs | amâl | amân | amê | amô |
| gʷî | spy, thief | gʷî | gʷî | gʷîs | gʷîl | gʷîn | gʷê | gʷŭ |
| dô | swamp | dô | dô | dôs | dôl | dôn | daʕʷ | dô |
| hʷê | military road | hʷê | hʷê | hʷês | hʷêl | hʷên | hʷê[3] | hʷê |
| ḳʷû | urine | ḳʷuʕʷù | ḳʷuʕʷû | ḳʷuʕʷus | ḳʷuʕʷul | ḳʷuʕʷun | ḳʷuʕʷ | ḳʷuʕʷū |
Final -ú might not exist because of retention of the final /kp/ cluster as /p/ rather than deletion.
Primary consonant-stem declensions
| Nominative | (English) | Accusative | Locative | Possessive | Dative | Circumstantial | Essive | Instrumental |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| gis | fruit tree | gixì | gixî | gixis | gixil | gixin | gixĕ | gixʷ |
| maŋan | prey | maŋaŋà | maŋaŋâ | maŋaŋas | maŋaŋal | maŋaŋan | maŋaŋī | maŋaŋō |
Number
Singular
Most nouns are singular in their unarmed form. Exceptions use the singulative affix ṅ.
Dual
The dual affix, -o, is mostly confined to denoting human couples and certain paired objects such as double doors. It does not generally function as a generic marker for two of an object. Note that this is the same word as ô "married couple", the only difference being the loss of stress.
Plural
The plural affix for all nouns is -yi. This is the same word, historically, as yî "book", because a book is a bundle of papers and this was extended by analogy to other objects. The parent language, Gold had no plural marker, and this is why the plural markers are different in the various languages derived from it.
