User:Masako/nkala: Difference between revisions

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= outline =
{| class="wikitable"
 
! Letter
For instance, in
! IPA
:{|
! English
|아이들이 ||김에게 ||빵을 ||많이 ||주었어요
|-
|-
|'''ai tuli'''||'''kimuy key-0'''||'''ppang ul-0'''||'''manhi-0'''||'''cwue-ss-e-0'''
| a || /a/ || most similar to ''a'' as in "f'''a'''ther"
|-
|-
|aideuri ||gimege ||bbangeul ||manhi ||jueosseo
| b || /b/ || ''b'' as in "sta'''b'''le"
|-
|-
|child-pl-{{sc|nom}}||Kim-to||bread-{{sc|acc}}||a_lot||give-{{sc|pret}}-{{sc|int}},
| c || /t͡s/, /t͡ʃ/, /ʃ/ || ''ts'' as in "ca'''ts'''", ''ch'' in "'''ch'''urch", or like ''sh'' in "'''sh'''oe"
|}
'''Tul''' could also occur at any of the 0's. If it did, it would not be redundant with the plural marking on the subject. For example, in,
 
<big><big>'''Kala'''</big></big>
 
= phonology =
* Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.
 
== consonants ==
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:400px;"
!  || Labial || Alveolar || Palatal || Velar || Glottal
|-
| '''Stops''' || p~b '''(p)''' || t~d '''(t)''' || || k~g '''(k)''' || ʔ '''(')'''
|-
| '''Fricatives''' || || s '''(s)''' || ʃ '''(s)''' || || h~ɦ '''(h)'''  
|-
| '''Affricates'''|| || t͡ɬ '''(tl)''' / t͡s '''(ts)''' || t͡ʃ '''(ts)''' || ||
|-
| '''Approximants''' || w '''(u)''' || l~r '''(l)''' || j '''(y)''' || ||
|-
| '''Nasals''' || m '''(m)''' || n '''(n)''' || ɲ '''(ny)''' || ||
|}
 
== vowels ==
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:200px;"
! || Front || Central || Back
|-
| '''Close''' || i '''(i)''' || || u '''(u)'''
|-
| '''Mid''' || e '''(e)''' || || o '''(o)'''
|-
|-
| '''Open''' || || a '''(a)''' ||
| d || /d/ || ''d'' as in "a'''d'''opt"
|}
 
=== diphthongs ===
 
* Both of the falling diphthongs as well as '''uai''' and '''yao''' only occur word finally.
 
==== falling ====
 
*[aɪ~aɪ:] - '''ai'''
*[aʊ~aʊ:] - '''ao'''
 
==== rising ====
 
*[wa~wa:] - '''ua'''
*[waɪ~waɪ:] - '''uai'''
*[ja~ja:] - '''ya'''
*[jaʊ~jaʊ:] - '''yao'''
*[je~je:] - '''ye'''
*[jo~jo:] - '''yo'''
 
== allophony ==
*''/ʔ/'' is not phonemic and only occurs between non-diphthong vowel pairs.
*''/h/ > [ɦ]'' when immediately preceded or followed by  ''/e i/''.
*''/s/ > [ʃ]'' except when preceded or followed by onset ''/tʃ/''
 
== phonotactics ==
 
* Kala phonotactics does not allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized.
* Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a morpheme.
 
=== syllable structure ===
 
* (N)(C)V/D(F)
** N - nasal; prenasal; /n/ or /m/
** C - consonant
** V - vowel
** D - diphthong
** F - final; coda
 
* The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/; these only occur as a final codas to negate, pluralize or adverbialize verbs and nouns, respectively.
 
=== stress ===
 
* In Kala stress falls on the [[penultimate]] syllable with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is ultimate.
 
=== prenasalized consonants ===
 
* In Kala, almost every consonant can be prenasalized, but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized, while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases  of [[syllabic]] /n/ or /m/.
 
* '''mp''' ''/ᵐp~ᵐb/''
:Example: '''mpaka''' ''/ˈᵐpa.ka/ - ''n'' - boundary; border; line
* '''nt''' ''/ⁿt~ⁿd/''
:Example: '''ntama''' ''/ˈⁿta.ma/'' - ''n'' - calf (a young cow or bull)
* '''nk''' ''/ᵑk~ᵑ/''
:Example: '''nkapa''' ''/ˈᵑka.pa/'' - ''n'' - alcohol; grog
 
= nouns =
 
== plurality ==
* A countable noun (or "count noun") can be modified by a number, and can accept the plural. Typical countable nouns represent objects that are clearly individual entities, such as houses, cats, and thoughts. For example:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:400px;"
! || root || usage || example
|-
|-
| '''-m''' || '''ma''' || general plural || '''tsakam'''<br>houses
| e || /e/, /ɛ/ || most similar to ''e'' as in "'''e'''gg" or ''e'' as in "b'''e'''t"
|-
|-
| '''-mha''' || '''ma''' + '''-ha''' || indefinite abundance || '''tsakamha'''<br>many/a lot houses
| g || /g/ || hard ''g'' as in "'''g'''o"
|-
|-
| '''-mi''' || '''ma''' + '''-hi''' || indefinite insufficiency || '''tsakami'''<br>few houses
| h || /h/ || ''h'' as in "'''h'''at", "a'''h'''oy"
|-
|-
| '''tli-''' ||  || collective plural || '''tlikuma'''<br>sleuth of bears
| i || /i/, /ɪ/ || ''i'' as in "mach'''i'''ne", ''ee'' in "b'''ee'''"
|-
|-
| '''-lo''' || '''ma''' || alternative to '''-m''' || '''yamalo'''<br>mountains
| j || /ʒ/ || ''s'' as in "plea'''s'''ure, mea'''s'''ure" or ''g'' in "mira'''g'''e, bei'''g'''e"
|}
 
* When modified by a number, general plurals need not be marked. Example:
: '''tsaka ta'o''' - Two houses.
 
== gender ==
* Nouns do not normally indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, the suffixes '''-ta''' and '''-na''' are used:
 
* '''uma''' - horse
: '''umata''' - a male horse, a stallion
: '''umana''' - a female horse, a mare
 
== noun phrases ==
 
= pronouns =
* Kala generally distinguishes four persons, the fourth person indicating abstract and inanimate nouns – both in the singular and plural numbers.
* There is also a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;"
|-
|-
! || Nominative || Accusative || Possessive || Reflexive || Reciprocal
| k || /k/ || ''k'' as in "s'''k'''in, s'''k'''ip"
|-
|-
| {{sc|1sg}}
| l || /l/ || most similar to ''l'' as in "'''l'''amb"
|| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''nayo''' || '''na'i''' || ''' '''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2sg}}
| m || /m/ || ''m'' as in "ad'''m'''it"
|| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''tayo''' || '''ta'i''' || ''' '''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3sg}}
| n || /n/ || ''n'' as in "a'''n'''alogy"
|| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''hayo''' || '''ha'i''' || ''' '''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|4sg}}
| o || /o/ || most similar to ''o'' as in "'''o'''r"
|| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tlayo''' || '''tla'i''' || ''' '''
|-
| {{sc|1pl}}
|| '''nam''' || '''enam''' || '''namyo''' || '''nami''' || '''nanku'''
|-
| {{sc|1pl.excl}}
|| '''na'am''' || '''ena'am''' || '''na'amyo''' || '''na'ami''' || '''na'anku'''
|-
| {{sc|2pl}}
|| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tami''' || '''tanku'''
|-
| {{sc|3pl}}
|| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kami''' || '''kanku'''
|-
| {{sc|4pl}}
|| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlanku'''
|-
|}
 
== determiners ==
 
* '''itla, itlam''' – this, these (near speaker)
* '''uatla, uatlam''' – that, those (near listener)
* '''yetla, yetlam''' – that, those (away from speaker and listener)
* '''ua, uam''' – other, others
* '''ula, ote''' – any, whichever, whatever
* – each
* '''iha''' – some
* '''amha''' – much, many
* '''ahi''' – little, few
* '''maha''' – more, most
* '''ohi''' – fewer, less, fewest, least
* '''kua''' – all
* '''yema''' – both
 
== interrogative and relative pronouns ==
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:900px;"
! || ''query'' || ''proximal'' || ''medial'' || ''distal'' || ''indefinite'' || ''negative'' || ''ambiguous'' || ''universal'' || ''generalized''
|-
|-
| ''adjective'' || '''ote'''<br>which || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''iha'''<br>some || '''-k'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>any || '''kua'''<br>every || '''ote'''<br>whichever
| p || /p/ || ''p'' as in "s'''p'''in, s'''p'''ark"
|-
|-
| ''person'' || '''ko'''<br>who || '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person (there) || '''hyako'''<br>someone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>anyone || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''teko'''<br>who(m)ever
| r || /ɾ/ || tapped or rolled r
|-
|-
| ''thing'' || '''ke'''<br>what || '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that (there) || '''hyano'''<br>something || '''nok'''<br>no thing || '''nola'''<br>anything || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''ote'''<br>whatever
| s || /s/ || ''s'' as in "ea'''s'''t"
|-
|-
| ''time'' || '''ama'''<br>when || '''ima'''<br>now || '''uama'''<br>then || '''yeme'''<br>then (yon) || '''hyama'''<br>sometime || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>anytime || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''tema'''<br>whenever
| t || /t/ || ''t'' as in "s'''t'''ake, s'''t'''op"
|-
|-
| ''place'' || '''mo'''<br>where || '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemo'''<br>there (away) || '''hyamo'''<br>somewhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>anywhere || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''temo'''<br>wherever
| u || /u/ || ''u'' as in "d'''u'''ma", "d'''u'''gong" or ''oo'' in "m'''oo'''n"
|-
|-
| ''way'' || '''to'''<br>how || '''yoto'''<br>thus || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''hyato'''<br>somehow || '''tok'''<br>no way || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''heto'''<br>however
| v || /v/ || ''v'' as in "a'''v'''oid"
|-
|-
| ''amount'' || '''uku'''<br>how many || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''ok'''<br>none || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''teku'''<br>however much/many
| y || /j/ || ''y'' as in "'''y'''es"
|-
|-
| ''reason'' || '''nye'''<br>why || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || ''' ''' || '''tenye'''<br>whyever
| z || /z/ || ''z'' as in "'''z'''ebra"
|}
|}
* To form a question, the queries are placed at the begining of a phrase and '''ka''' is placed at the end. Example:
* '''tam yala''' - ''2PL go'' - You all are going.
: '''ama tam yala ka''' - ''time 2PL go Q'' - When are you going?

Revision as of 14:16, 19 September 2014

Letter IPA English
a /a/ most similar to a as in "father"
b /b/ b as in "stable"
c /t͡s/, /t͡ʃ/, /ʃ/ ts as in "cats", ch in "church", or like sh in "shoe"
d /d/ d as in "adopt"
e /e/, /ɛ/ most similar to e as in "egg" or e as in "bet"
g /g/ hard g as in "go"
h /h/ h as in "hat", "ahoy"
i /i/, /ɪ/ i as in "machine", ee in "bee"
j /ʒ/ s as in "pleasure, measure" or g in "mirage, beige"
k /k/ k as in "skin, skip"
l /l/ most similar to l as in "lamb"
m /m/ m as in "admit"
n /n/ n as in "analogy"
o /o/ most similar to o as in "or"
p /p/ p as in "spin, spark"
r /ɾ/ tapped or rolled r
s /s/ s as in "east"
t /t/ t as in "stake, stop"
u /u/ u as in "duma", "dugong" or oo in "moon"
v /v/ v as in "avoid"
y /j/ y as in "yes"
z /z/ z as in "zebra"