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= k =
= k =


== pronunciation ==
==Pronunciation==
 
* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[Wikipedia:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
 
===Vowels===
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!'''Front'''
!'''Central'''
!'''Back'''
|-align=center
!'''Close'''
|{{IPA|i~i:}} '''(i)'''  || || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
|-align=center
!'''Mid'''
|{{IPA|e~e:}} '''(e)''' || || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
|-align=center
!'''Open'''
| || {{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)''' ||
|}
 
====Diphthongs====
 
* Both of the falling [[Wikipedia:Diphthong|diphthongs]] as well as '''uai''' and '''yao''' only occur word finally.
 
=====falling=====
 
*{{IPA|[aɪ~aɪ:]}} - '''ai'''
*{{IPA|[aʊ~aʊ:]}} - '''ao'''
 
=====rising=====
 
*{{IPA|[wa~wa:]}} - '''ua'''
*{{IPA|[waɪ~waɪ:]}} - '''uai'''
*{{IPA|[ja~ja:]}} - '''ya'''
*{{IPA|[jaʊ~jaʊ:]}} - '''yao'''
*{{IPA|[je~je:]}} - '''ye'''
*{{IPA|[jo~jo:]}} - '''yo'''
 
===Consonants===
 
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! rowspan="2"|
! rowspan="2"|Labial
! colspan="2"|Dental
! rowspan="2"|Palatal
! colspan="2"|Velar
! rowspan="2"|Glottal
|-align=center
!<small>central</small>
!<small>lateral</small>
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>labial</small>
|-align=center
! Nasal
| {{IPA|m}} '''(m)'''
| {{IPA|n}} '''(n)'''
|
| {{IPA|ɲ}} '''(ny)'''
|
|
|
|-align=center
!Plosive
| {{IPA|p~b}} '''(p)'''
| {{IPA|t~d}} '''(t)'''
|
|
| {{IPA|k~g}} '''(k)'''
| 
| {{IPA|ʔ}} '''(')'''
|-align=center
!Fricative
|
| {{IPA|s}} '''(s)'''
|
| {{IPA|ʃ}} '''(s)'''
|
|
| {{IPA|h~ɦ}} '''(h)'''
|-align=center
!Affricate
|
| {{IPA|ts}} '''(ts)'''
| {{IPA|tɬ}} '''(tl)'''
| {{IPA|tʃ}} '''(ts)'''
|
|
|
|-align=center
! Approximant
|
|
| {{IPA|l~r}} '''(l)'''
| {{IPA|j}} '''(y)'''
|
| {{IPA|w}} '''(u)'''
|
|}
 
* <'''s'''> & <'''ts'''> are /ʃ/ and /tʃ/ respectively, unless immediately preceded or followed by one another, then <'''s'''> is always /s/ and <'''ts'''> is always /tʃ/.
* However, one could pronounce them either way (e.g. always /s/ & /ts/) and still be understood.
 
*Example:
 
:'''sitsa''' - /'si:.tʃa/ - warmth, heat / warm, hot / to heat up
:'''tsasu''' - /'tʃa:.su/ - cursive writing; having successive letters joined together
 
==== Phonotactics ====
 
* Kala phonotactics does not allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialised or palatalised.
** There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of father, etc.
* Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a morpheme.
 
==== Syllable Structure ====
 
* ''See also'': [[Kala/syllables|Syllables]]
 
*(N)(C)V/D(F)
**N - nasal; prenasal; /n/ or /m/
**C - consonant
**V - vowel
**D - diphthong
**F - final; coda
 
*The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/; these only occur as a final codas to negate, pluralize or adverbialize verbs and nouns, respectively.
 
==== Stress ====
 
* In Kala stress falls on the [[Wikipedia:Stress_(linguistics)|penultimate]] syllable with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is [[Wikipedia:Stress_(linguistics)|ultimate]].
 
====Prenasalized consonants====
 
* In Kala, almost every consonant can be [[Wikipedia:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalized]], but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized,while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases  of [[Wikipedia:Syllabic_consonant|syllabic]] /n/ or /m/.
 
* '''mp''' /ᵐp~ᵐb/
:Example: '''mpaka''' /ˈᵐpa.ka/ - ''n'' - boundary / border / line
* '''nt''' /ⁿt~ⁿd/
:Example: '''ntama''' /ˈⁿta.ma/ - ''n'' - calf (a young cow or bull)
* '''nk''' /ᵑk~ᵑ/
:Example: '''nkapa''' /ˈᵑka.pa/ - ''n'' - alcohol / grog


== sentence structure ==
== sentence structure ==

Revision as of 03:47, 21 April 2013

k

Pronunciation

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close i~i: (i) u~u: (u)
Mid e~e: (e) o~o: (o)
Open a~a: (a)

Diphthongs

  • Both of the falling diphthongs as well as uai and yao only occur word finally.
falling
  • [aɪ~aɪ:] - ai
  • [aʊ~aʊ:] - ao
rising
  • [wa~wa:] - ua
  • [waɪ~waɪ:] - uai
  • [ja~ja:] - ya
  • [jaʊ~jaʊ:] - yao
  • [je~je:] - ye
  • [jo~jo:] - yo

Consonants

Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal
central lateral plain labial
Nasal m (m) n (n) ɲ (ny)
Plosive p~b (p) t~d (t) k~g (k) ʔ (')
Fricative s (s) ʃ (s) h~ɦ (h)
Affricate ts (ts) tɬ (tl) tʃ (ts)
Approximant l~r (l) j (y) w (u)
  • <s> & <ts> are /ʃ/ and /tʃ/ respectively, unless immediately preceded or followed by one another, then <s> is always /s/ and <ts> is always /tʃ/.
  • However, one could pronounce them either way (e.g. always /s/ & /ts/) and still be understood.
  • Example:
sitsa - /'si:.tʃa/ - warmth, heat / warm, hot / to heat up
tsasu - /'tʃa:.su/ - cursive writing; having successive letters joined together

Phonotactics

  • Kala phonotactics does not allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialised or palatalised.
    • There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of father, etc.
  • Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a morpheme.

Syllable Structure

  • (N)(C)V/D(F)
    • N - nasal; prenasal; /n/ or /m/
    • C - consonant
    • V - vowel
    • D - diphthong
    • F - final; coda
  • The three codas are /k/, /m/, and /n/; these only occur as a final codas to negate, pluralize or adverbialize verbs and nouns, respectively.

Stress

  • In Kala stress falls on the penultimate syllable with the exceptions of negatives and words that end with a syllable onset palatal approximant, in which case stress is ultimate.

Prenasalized consonants

  • In Kala, almost every consonant can be prenasalized, but primarily the plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ can be analyzed as prenasalized,while most other instances could be easily analyzed as cases of syllabic /n/ or /m/.
  • mp /ᵐp~ᵐb/
Example: mpaka /ˈᵐpa.ka/ - n - boundary / border / line
  • nt /ⁿt~ⁿd/
Example: ntama /ˈⁿta.ma/ - n - calf (a young cow or bull)
  • nk /ᵑk~ᵑ/
Example: nkapa /ˈᵑka.pa/ - n - alcohol / grog

sentence structure

parts of speech

verbs

nouns

particles

Compound Sentences (Subordinate Clauses)

Comparative, Superlative

possessives

demonstratives

reflexives

adjectives

adverbs

prepositions & conjunctions

Relative Clauses

Interjections

Numbers

Expressions of Time

Ordering of Phrases

Causative Constructions

Compounding

Creating Nouns from Verbs

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