Revived Middle Cornish: Difference between revisions

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=== Allophony ===
=== Allophony ===
Vowels are long when stressed and followed by at most one short consonant, other than /p/ or /t/.
Vowels are long when stressed and followed by at most one short consonant, other than /p/ or /t/.
*/a/ has the allophone {{IPA|[ə]}} when unstressed, [a] when followed by a geminate, and {{IPA|[aː]}} when stressed according to KDL.<ref name=kdl_reference_section>KDL [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/Reference%20Section.pdf Reference Section].</ref> <ref name=wp_kernewek_kemmyn_a>Wikipedia agrees with the difference that the vowel is also short when followed by two different consonants. It also says "some vowels have a tendency to be reduced to schwas [ə] in unstressed syllables". [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernewek_Kemmyn Kernewek Kemmyn] at Wikipedia.</ref>
*/a/ has the allophone {{IPA|[ə]}} when unstressed, [a] when followed by a geminate, and {{IPA|[aː]}} when stressed according to KDL.<ref name=kdl_reference_section>Kernewek Dre Lyther, [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/Reference%20Section.pdf Reference Section].</ref> <ref name=wp_kernewek_kemmyn_a>Wikipedia agrees with the difference that the vowel is also short when followed by two different consonants. It also says "some vowels have a tendency to be reduced to schwas [ə] in unstressed syllables". [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernewek_Kemmyn Kernewek Kemmyn] at Wikipedia.</ref>
*{{IPA|/aʊ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[aʊ]}}.<ref name=kdl_reference_section/>
*{{IPA|/aʊ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[aʊ]}}.<ref name=kdl_reference_section/>
*{{IPA|/aɪ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[aɪ]}}.<ref name=kdl_reference_section/>
*{{IPA|/aɪ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[aɪ]}}.<ref name=kdl_reference_section/>
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*{{IPA|/ʍ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[ʍ]}}.
*{{IPA|/ʍ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[ʍ]}}.
*/i/ has the long allophone {{IPA|[iː]}}, and the short allophone [i] according to [http://kernowek.net/Specification_Final_Version.pdf SWF], while KDL<ref name=kdl_reference_section/> and Wikipedia<ref name=wp_kernewek_kemmyn/> seem to suggest that it doesn't have a short counterpart.
*/i/ has the long allophone {{IPA|[iː]}}, and the short allophone [i] according to [http://kernowek.net/Specification_Final_Version.pdf SWF], while KDL<ref name=kdl_reference_section/> and Wikipedia<ref name=wp_kernewek_kemmyn/> seem to suggest that it doesn't have a short counterpart.
*{{IPA|/iʊ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[iʊ]}}. KDL seems to suggest that it is {{IPA|[iːʊ]}},<ref name=kdl_reference_section/> but that might stem from a confusion about the difference between length and tenseness,<ref name=kdl_reference_section_yw>See the paragraph about YW in the KDL [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/Reference%20Section.pdf Reference Section].</ref> as this is not supported by its sound files.<ref name=dyskans_2_audio>Listen for example to ''P<u>iw</u> yw y gesskrifer?'' at the very end of [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl02.mp3 KDL Lesson 2 audio file].</ref>
*{{IPA|/iʊ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[iʊ]}}. KDL seems to suggest that it is {{IPA|[iːʊ]}},<ref name=kdl_reference_section/> but that might stem from a confusion about the difference between length and tenseness,<ref name=kdl_reference_section_yw>See the paragraph about YW in Kernewek Dre Lyther, [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/Reference%20Section.pdf Reference Section].</ref> as this is not supported by its sound files.<ref name=dyskans_2_audio>Listen for example to ''P<u>iw</u> yw y gesskrifer?'' at the very end of Kernewek Dre Lyther, [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl02.mp3 Lesson 2, audio file].</ref>
*{{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}.
*{{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} has the allophone {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}.
*/k/ has the allophone [k].
*/k/ has the allophone [k].
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=== Initial Mutation ===
=== Initial Mutation ===
In Cornish, some words cause the initial consonant of the following word to change. This is called mutation. There are five different types of mutation in Cornish, called ''soft'', ''breathed'', ''hard'', ''mixed'' and ''mixed after Th'', referring to the sound changes involved. These are numbered 2-6, and are usually just referred to by their number.<ref name=dyskans_1>KDL [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl01.pdf Lesson 1].</ref> For example ''dhe<sup>2</sup>'' means that the word ''dhe'' causes soft mutation in the following word. This table shows which sounds change into what in different mutation states. An empty cell means that no change happens, and a dash means that the sound is elided. For example the word ''gramasek'' becomes ''ramasek'' in second state (soft) mutation.
In Cornish, some words cause the initial consonant of the following word to change. This is called mutation. There are five different types of mutation in Cornish, called ''soft'', ''breathed'', ''hard'', ''mixed'' and ''mixed after Th'', referring to the sound changes involved. These are numbered 2-6, and are usually just referred to by their number.<ref name=dyskans_1>Kernewek Dre Lyther, [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl01.pdf Lesson 1].</ref> For example ''dhe<sup>2</sup>'' means that the word ''dhe'' causes soft mutation in the following word. This table shows which sounds change into what in different mutation states. An empty cell means that no change happens, and a dash means that the sound is elided. For example the word ''gramasek'' becomes ''ramasek'' in second state (soft) mutation.
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=50% class="bordertable" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #ffff00; font-size: 95%;"
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=50% class="bordertable" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #ffff00; font-size: 95%;"
|+ '''Mutation Table'''
|+ '''Mutation Table'''
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|}
|}
These are subject pronouns used in nominative sentences (with the particles [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#A2_-_Positive_Polarity_Item|a<sup>2</sup>]] and [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Re2_-_Perfect_Aspect_Particle|Re<sup>2</sup>]]).<br>
These are subject pronouns used in nominative sentences (with the particles [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#A2_-_Positive_Polarity_Item|a<sup>2</sup>]] and [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Re2_-_Perfect_Aspect_Particle|Re<sup>2</sup>]]).<br>
Cornish has a [[Wikipedia:T-V_distinction|T-V distinction]], in that ''hwi'' can also be used as a polite form of address towards a single person. But this usage is become more and more uncommon in modern language.<ref name=dyskans_7>KDL [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl07.pdf Lesson 7].</ref>
Cornish has a [[Wikipedia:T-V_distinction|T-V distinction]], in that ''hwi'' can also be used as a polite form of address towards a single person. But this usage is become more and more uncommon in modern language.<ref name=dyskans_7>Kernewek Dre Lyther, [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl07.pdf Lesson 7].</ref>


{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=50% class="bordertable" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #008000; font-size: 95%;"
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=50% class="bordertable" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #008000; font-size: 95%;"
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| gensi <br> ''with her/it''
| gensi <br> ''with her/it''
|}
|}
''Gans'' (with) combines with the personal pronouns.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl07.pdf] So for example "I work with them" translates as ''My a ober gansa'' rather than ''*My a ober gans i''. See also [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Possession|Possession]].
''Gans'' (with) combines with the personal pronouns.<ref name=dyskans_7/> So for example "I work with them" translates as ''My a ober gansa'' rather than ''*My a ober gans i''. See also [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Possession|Possession]].


{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=50% class="bordertable" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #008000; font-size: 95%;"
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=50% class="bordertable" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #008000; font-size: 95%;"
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| dhedhi <br> ''to her/it''
| dhedhi <br> ''to her/it''
|}
|}
''Dhe<sup>2</sup>'' (to; at) also combines with the personal pronouns.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl07.pdf] So for example "I sent a letter to you" translates as ''My a dhannvonas lyther dhis'' rather than ''*My a dhannvonas lyther dhe ty''. See also [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Possession|Possession]].
''Dhe<sup>2</sup>'' (to; at) also combines with the personal pronouns.<ref name=dyskans_7/> So for example "I sent a letter to you" translates as ''My a dhannvonas lyther dhis'' rather than ''*My a dhannvonas lyther dhe ty''. See also [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Possession|Possession]].
{|
{|
| colspan=5 | ''Yma soedhva dhyn ni ynwedh!''
| colspan=5 | ''Yma soedhva dhyn ni ynwedh!''
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| colspan=5 | ''<u>We</u> have an office too!''
| colspan=5 | ''<u>We</u> have an office too!''
|}
|}
The pronoun can be repeated in its uncombined form to add greater emphasis.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl07.pdf]
The pronoun can be repeated in its uncombined form to add greater emphasis.<ref name=dyskans_7/>


=== Adjectives ===
=== Adjectives ===
Adjectives follow the noun they modify. Adjectives following singular feminine nouns take mutation form 2.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl02.pdf]
Adjectives follow the noun they modify. Adjectives following singular feminine nouns take mutation form 2.<ref name=dyskans_2>Kernewek Dre Lyther, [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl02.pdf Lesson 2].</ref>


=== Verbs ===
=== Verbs ===
==== Tense ====
==== Tense ====
Present tense is unmarked. Some verbs take the suffix ''-as'', and some take ''-is'', for forming the past tense. And some verbs are irregular.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl06.pdf]
Present tense is unmarked. Some verbs take the suffix ''-as'', and some take ''-is'', for forming the past tense. And some verbs are irregular.<ref name=dyskans_6>Kernewek Dre Lyther, [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl06.pdf Lesson 6].</ref>
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=50% class="bordertable" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #008000; font-size: 95%;"
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=50% class="bordertable" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #008000; font-size: 95%;"
|+ '''Verb Tenses'''
|+ '''Verb Tenses'''
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==== Verbal Nouns (Infinitives) ====
==== Verbal Nouns (Infinitives) ====
Infinitives, or verbal nouns or verb-nouns as they are usually called in Cornish grammar, are derived in a variety of ways from the verbs basic form.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl06.pdf]
Infinitives, or verbal nouns or verb-nouns as they are usually called in Cornish grammar, are derived in a variety of ways from the verbs basic form.<ref name=dyskans_6/>


==== Copulas ====
==== Copulas ====
Cornish has two copulas: One that tells <u>who, what or how</u> something is, and one that tells <u>where</u> something is. The former one is ''yw'' in the third person singular form.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl02.pdf]
Cornish has two copulas: One that tells <u>who, what or how</u> something is, and one that tells <u>where</u> something is. The former one is ''yw'' in the third person singular form.<ref name=dyskans_2/>
{|  
{|  
| colspan=4 | ''An vro yw Pow Frynk.''
| colspan=4 | ''An vro yw Pow Frynk.''
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| colspan=4 | ''The country is France.''
| colspan=4 | ''The country is France.''
|}
|}
A third person singular subject pronoun may be dropped when yw is used, in which case yw is placed after its complement.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl02.pdf]
A third person singular subject pronoun may be dropped when yw is used, in which case yw is placed after its complement.<ref name=dyskans_2/>
{|
{|
| colspan=2 | ''Ki yw.''
| colspan=2 | ''Ki yw.''
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| colspan=2 | ''He/she/it is a dog.''
| colspan=2 | ''He/she/it is a dog.''
|}
|}
''Yma'' is the copula that tells where something is. Yma is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl03.pdf]
''Yma'' is the copula that tells where something is. Yma is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.<ref name=dyskans_3>Kernewek Dre Lyther, [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl03.pdf Lesson 3].</ref>
{|
{|
| colspan=4 | ''Yma Truru yn Kernow.''
| colspan=4 | ''Yma Truru yn Kernow.''
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=== Particles ===
=== Particles ===
==== A<sup>2</sup> - Positive Polarity Item ====
==== A<sup>2</sup> - Positive Polarity Item ====
The particle ''a<sup>2</sup>'' is used before verbs in nominal sentences to mark for [[Wikipedia:Grammatical polarity|affirmative polarity]].[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl02.pdf]
The particle ''a<sup>2</sup>'' is used before verbs in nominal sentences to mark for [[Wikipedia:Grammatical polarity|affirmative polarity]].<ref name=dyskans_2/>
{|
{|
| colspan=5 | ''Hi a skrif dhe goweth.''
| colspan=5 | ''Hi a skrif dhe goweth.''
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==== Ny<sup>2</sup> - Negative Polarity Item ====
==== Ny<sup>2</sup> - Negative Polarity Item ====
''Ny<sup>2</sup>'' is used for marking [[Wikipedia:Grammatical polarity|negative polarity]]. Sentences with ny<sup>2</sup> are considered to be verbal and not nominal. Ny<sup>2</sup> is only used with third person singular subjects. [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl04.pdf]
''Ny<sup>2</sup>'' is used for marking [[Wikipedia:Grammatical polarity|negative polarity]]. Sentences with ny<sup>2</sup> are considered to be verbal and not nominal. Ny<sup>2</sup> is only used with third person singular subjects.<ref name=dyskans_4>Kernewek Dre Lyther, [http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl04.pdf Lesson 4].</ref>
{|
{|
| colspan=4 | ''Ny gews ev Sowsnek.''
| colspan=4 | ''Ny gews ev Sowsnek.''
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| colspan=4 | ''He doesn't speak English.''
| colspan=4 | ''He doesn't speak English.''
|}
|}
Usually the subject is placed after the verb. It can be placed before also, in which case the subject is strongly emphasized.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl04.pdf]
Usually the subject is placed after the verb. It can be placed before also, in which case the subject is strongly emphasized.<ref name=dyskans_4/>
{|
{|
| colspan=4 | ''My ny werth lyvrow.''
| colspan=4 | ''My ny werth lyvrow.''
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| colspan=4 | ''<u>I</u> don't sell books (but someone else might).''
| colspan=4 | ''<u>I</u> don't sell books (but someone else might).''
|}
|}
When a subject is emphasized like this, the past tense suffix of the verb agrees with the subject. (No agreement happens when the verb is positive, in present tense, or if the subject follows the verb.)[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl06.pdf]
When a subject is emphasized like this, the past tense suffix of the verb agrees with the subject. (No agreement happens when the verb is positive, in present tense, or if the subject follows the verb.)<ref name=dyskans_6/>


==== Re<sup>2</sup> - Perfect Aspect Particle ====
==== Re<sup>2</sup> - Perfect Aspect Particle ====
''Re<sup>2</sup>'' is used instead of a<sup>2</sup> for forming the perfect aspect. It can be used with both present and past tense, but not with negative polarity. In negative verbs, simple and perfect are simply not distinguished.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl06.pdf]
''Re<sup>2</sup>'' is used instead of a<sup>2</sup> for forming the perfect aspect. It can be used with both present and past tense, but not with negative polarity. In negative verbs, simple and perfect are simply not distinguished.<ref name=dyskans_6/>
{|
{|
| colspan=5 | ''My re oberas yn soedhva.''
| colspan=5 | ''My re oberas yn soedhva.''
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==== A - Vocative Particle ====
==== A - Vocative Particle ====
''A'' is optionally used before names when calling out to someone.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/Reference%20Section.pdf] For example a letter may begin with ''A Yowann ker'' - Dear Yowann.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl06.pdf]
''A'' is optionally used before names when calling out to someone.<ref name=kdl_reference_section/> For example a letter may begin with ''A Yowann ker'' - Dear Yowann.<ref name=dyskans_6/>


== Syntax ==
== Syntax ==
=== Word Order ===
=== Word Order ===
In some constructions in Cornish, a word may be moved to the beginning of the sentence to give it more emphasis.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl04.pdf] ''Ev yw ki'' and ''ki yw ev'' both mean "it is a dog", but the latter sentence adds more emphasis to the word dog - "it is a ''dog'' and not some other animal". See also [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Ny2_-_Negative_Polarity_Item|Ny<sup>2</sup> - Negative Polarity Item]] and [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Can_and_Cannot|Can and Cannot]].
In some constructions in Cornish, a word may be moved to the beginning of the sentence to give it more emphasis.<ref name=dyskans_4/> ''Ev yw ki'' and ''ki yw ev'' both mean "it is a dog", but the latter sentence adds more emphasis to the word dog - "it is a ''dog'' and not some other animal". See also [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Ny2_-_Negative_Polarity_Item|Ny<sup>2</sup> - Negative Polarity Item]] and [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Can_and_Cannot|Can and Cannot]].


=== Possession ===
=== Possession ===
There is no genitive morpheme in Cornish. Instead possession is shown by simply placing the possessor after the possessee.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl03.pdf]
There is no genitive morpheme in Cornish. Instead possession is shown by simply placing the possessor after the possessee.<ref name=dyskans_3/>
{|
{|
| colspan=3 | ''Kok an pyskador.''
| colspan=3 | ''Kok an pyskador.''
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| colspan=3 | ''The fisherman's fishing boat.''
| colspan=3 | ''The fisherman's fishing boat.''
|}
|}
Have-constructions, e.g. "X has Y", are construed as ''yma Y dhe<sup>2</sup> X''.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl03.pdf]
Have-constructions, e.g. "X has Y", are construed as ''yma Y dhe<sup>2</sup> X''.<ref name=dyskans_3/>
{|
{|
| colspan=4 | ''Yma kok dhe byskador.''
| colspan=4 | ''Yma kok dhe byskador.''
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| colspan=3 | ''He has a house.''
| colspan=3 | ''He has a house.''
|}
|}
There is another construction very similar to yma Y dhe<sup>2</sup> X, but with ''gans'' (with) instead of dhe<sup>2</sup>. It describes a looser association than actual ownership.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl04.pdf]
There is another construction very similar to yma Y dhe<sup>2</sup> X, but with ''gans'' (with) instead of dhe<sup>2</sup>. It describes a looser association than actual ownership.<ref name=dyskans_4/>
{|
{|
| colspan=4 | ''Yma myrgh gans benyn.''
| colspan=4 | ''Yma myrgh gans benyn.''
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=== Can and Cannot ===
=== Can and Cannot ===
"I can" translates as ''y<sup>5</sup> hallav'', and "I can't" as ''ny<sup>2</sup> allav''. Both call for a [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Verbal_Nouns_(Infinitives)|verbal noun]].[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl06.pdf]
"I can" translates as ''y<sup>5</sup> hallav'', and "I can't" as ''ny<sup>2</sup> allav''. Both call for a [[Revived_Middle_Cornish#Verbal_Nouns_(Infinitives)|verbal noun]].<ref name=dyskans_6/>
{|
{|
| colspan=3 | ''Ny allav triga omma.''
| colspan=3 | ''Ny allav triga omma.''
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| colspan=4 | ''I can write to you soon.''
| colspan=4 | ''I can write to you soon.''
|}
|}
Y<sup>5</sup> hallav implies that one can do something because of physical ability, or because one is allowed to. If one can do something because one has learned to do it, usually ''y<sup>5</sup> hwonn'' or ''my a<sup>2</sup> woer'' is used instead. My a<sup>2</sup> woer makes a nominal sentence, and emphasizes the subject, while y<sup>5</sup> hwonn is more neutral.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl06.pdf]
Y<sup>5</sup> hallav implies that one can do something because of physical ability, or because one is allowed to. If one can do something because one has learned to do it, usually ''y<sup>5</sup> hwonn'' or ''my a<sup>2</sup> woer'' is used instead. My a<sup>2</sup> woer makes a nominal sentence, and emphasizes the subject, while y<sup>5</sup> hwonn is more neutral.<ref name=dyskans_6/>
{|
{|
| colspan=3 | ''Y hwonn kewsel Kernewek.''
| colspan=3 | ''Y hwonn kewsel Kernewek.''
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=== Verbal Nouns with Adjectives ===
=== Verbal Nouns with Adjectives ===
A sentence of the form "I am happy/sad to VERB", for example "I am happy to learn Cornish", makes use of the following construction: ''Lowen/trist ov vy dhe<sup>2</sup> VERB-INF''.[http://www.kesva.org/assets/files/KDL/kdl06.pdf]
A sentence of the form "I am happy/sad to VERB", for example "I am happy to learn Cornish", makes use of the following construction: ''Lowen/trist ov vy dhe<sup>2</sup> VERB-INF''.<ref name=dyskans_6/>
{|
{|
| colspan=5 |​ ''Lowen ov vy dhe dhyski Kernewek.''
| colspan=5 |​ ''Lowen ov vy dhe dhyski Kernewek.''

Revision as of 06:26, 9 February 2013

I, Qwynegold, am writing this article while self-studying Cornish online, as a way of sorting out what I have learned. Maybe others will have use of this as well? I'm expanding the article little by little as I progress in my study. I'm using the online course Kernewek Dre Lyther (KDL), so most references will be of that. There are also some references to the PDF An Outline of the Standard Written Form of Cornish.

This article is a work in progress.
The contents may be tentative, incomplete, inaccurate, in need of elaboration, subject to later revision, or just plain sketchy.

As a courtesy, if you are not the author of the article, please do not make edits to this article while this message is displayed.
Revived Middle Cornish
Kernewek
Spoken in: Cornwall, United Kingdom
World: Earth
Total speakers: 3,500 (all varieties of Cornish)[1]
Genealogical classification: Indo-European
Celtic
Insular Celtic
Brythonic
Cornish
Basic word order:
Morphological type:
Morphosyntactic alignment:


Phonology and Orthography

There are many different orthographies for Cornish. The varieties presented here are Kernewek Kemmyn (KK) and Standard Written Form (SWF). SWF has something called traditional graphs. For example /ks/ is normally written <KS> in SWF, but it can be substituted for the traditional graph <X>. SWF without traditional graphs has a more straightforward, one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes, while the traditional graphs emulate how Cornish was written during the middle ages.

Kernewek Kemmyn and SWF
Kernewek Kemmyn A AW AY B CH D DH E EU EW EY F G GH H HW I IW J K L M
SWF CK
SWF with traditional graphs WH I/Y1 C/K2
Pronunciation /a/ /aʊ/ /aɪ/ /b/ /t͡ʃ/ /k/ /d/ /ð/ /ɛ/ /œ/ /ɛʊ/ /ɛɪ/ /f/ /ɡ/ /x/ /h/ /ʍ/ /i/ /iʊ/ /d͡ʒ/ /k/ /l/ /m/
Kernewek Kemmyn N O OE OU OW P KW R S SH T TH U V W KS Y Y YW
SWF O/OO3 OU/OO OY UW Z
SWF with traditional graphs QW C/S4 X
Pronunciation /n/ /ɔ/ /o/ /u/ /ɔʊ/ /ɔɪ/ /p/ /kw/ /r/ /s/ /ʃ/ /t/ /θ/ /y/ /yʊ/ /v/ /w/ /ks/ /j/ /ɪ/ /ɪʊ/ /z/

1Final unstressed /i/ is spelled with <Y>, but /i/ in other contexts is spelled with <I>.
2<C> is used before <A O U L R>, <K> is used in other contexts.
3<O> is used for short /o/, and OO for long /oː/.
4

Allophony

Vowels are long when stressed and followed by at most one short consonant, other than /p/ or /t/.

  • /a/ has the allophone [ə] when unstressed, [a] when followed by a geminate, and [aː] when stressed according to KDL.[2] [3]
  • /aʊ/ has the allophone [aʊ].[2]
  • /aɪ/ has the allophone [aɪ].[2]
  • /b/ has the allophone [p] word-finally unless it is, without a pause, followed by a word beginning with a vowel. The allophone [b] appears in all other contexts.[2]
  • /t͡ʃ/ has the allophone [tʃ].[2]
  • /d/ has the allophone [t] word-finally when not followed by a word beginning with a vowel. However, if there is a pause after the word ending with /d/, it will be pronunced [t]. The allophone [d] appears in all other contexts.
  • /ð/ has the allophone [θ] word-finally unless it is, without a pause, followed by a word beginning with a vowel. The allophone [ð] appears in all other contexts.[2]
  • /ɛ/ has the allophone [ɛ] when unstressed or followed by a geminate, and [ɛː] when stressed or followed by a single consonant.[2] [4]
  • /œ/ has the long allophone [œː]. KDL[2] and Wikipedia[4] do not mention any other allophones. Its short allophone is [ɛ] according to SWF.
  • /ɛʊ/ has the allophone [ɛʊ].[2]
  • /ɛɪ/ has the allophone [ɛɪ].[2]
  • /f/ has the allophone [f].
  • /ɡ/ has the allophone [k] word-finally unless it is, without a pause, followed by a word beginning with a vowel. The allophone [ɡ] appears in all other contexts.[2]
  • /x/ has only the allophone [x] according to KDL.[2] According to SWF it is [h] intervocalically, and [x] elsewhere. It is in complimentary distribution with /h/ everywhere but word-initially or after a consonant.
  • /h/ has the allophone [h].
  • /ʍ/ has the allophone [ʍ].
  • /i/ has the long allophone [iː], and the short allophone [i] according to SWF, while KDL[2] and Wikipedia[4] seem to suggest that it doesn't have a short counterpart.
  • /iʊ/ has the allophone [iʊ]. KDL seems to suggest that it is [iːʊ],[2] but that might stem from a confusion about the difference between length and tenseness,[5] as this is not supported by its sound files.[6]
  • /d͡ʒ/ has the allophone [d͡ʒ].
  • /k/ has the allophone [k].
  • /l/ has the allophone [l].
  • /m/ has the allophone [m].
  • /n/ has the allophone [n]. KDL does not mention anything about nasal assimilation, but that does not mean that it does not exist.
  • /ɔ/ has the allophone [ɔ] when followed by a geminate or consonant cluster, and allophone [ɔː] elsewhere.[2] [4]
  • /o/ has the short allophone [ɤ] and the long allophone [oː].[2] [4]
  • /u/ has the long allophone [uː], and the short allophone [u] according to SWF, while KDL[2] and Wikipedia[4] seem to suggest that it does not have a short counterpart.
  • /ɔʊ/ has the allophone [ɔʊ].[2]
  • /ɔɪ/ has the allophone [ɔɪ].
  • /p/ has the allophone [p].
  • /r/ has the allophone [r] according to KDL.[2] But according to Wikipedia it is [ɾ].[4]
  • /s/ has the allophone [s] word-initially and before a voiceless plosive, [sː] when geminated, and [z] elsewhere.
  • /ʃ/ has the allophone [ʃ].
  • /t/ has the allophone [t].
  • /θ/ has the allophone [θ].
  • /y/ has the long allophone [yː], and the short allophone [ɪ] according to SWF, while KDL[2] and Wikipedia[4] seem to suggest that it does not have a short counterpart.
  • /yʊ/ has the allophone [yʊ].
  • /v/ has the allophone [f] word-finally unless it is, without a pause, followed by a word beginning with a vowel. The allophone [v] appears in all other contexts.[2]
  • /w/ has the allophone [w].[2] It is unclear if an intervocalic <w> is pronunced [w], or if it dipthongizes with the previous vowel, becoming [ʊ].
  • /j/ has the allophone [j].[2]
  • /ɪ/ has the short allophone [ɪ][2] and the long allophone /ɪː/.[4]
  • /ɪʊ/ has the allophone [ɪʊ].[2]
  • /z/ has the allophone [z].

Initial Mutation

In Cornish, some words cause the initial consonant of the following word to change. This is called mutation. There are five different types of mutation in Cornish, called soft, breathed, hard, mixed and mixed after Th, referring to the sound changes involved. These are numbered 2-6, and are usually just referred to by their number.[7] For example dhe2 means that the word dhe causes soft mutation in the following word. This table shows which sounds change into what in different mutation states. An empty cell means that no change happens, and a dash means that the sound is elided. For example the word gramasek becomes ramasek in second state (soft) mutation.

Mutation Table
1
Unmutated		 2
Soft		 3
Breathed		 4
Hard		 5
Mixed		 6
Mixed after Th
B V P F V
Ch J
D Dh T T T
G+{a, e, i, y} - K H H
G+{o, u, ro, ru} W K Hw W
G+{l, r} - K
Gw W Kw Hw W
K G1 H2
M V F V
P B1 F
T D1 Th

1No change if the previous word ends with S or Th.
2No change if followed by L, N or R.

Morphology

Nouns

There are two genders in Cornish: Masculine and feminine.[2] The majority of all nouns are masculine.

Articles

There was a word unn that was sometimes used as an indefinite article in old Cornish texts, but Revived Cornish seldomly use any indefinite article.[7] There is a definite article, an. It is often conjoined with other words, e.g. y'n (in the), ha'n (and the). This article causes second state mutation in a following singular feminine noun.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns
Singular Plural
1st person my
I		 ni
we
2nd person ty
you		 hwi
you
3rd person ev
he/it		 i
they
hi
she/it

These are subject pronouns used in nominative sentences (with the particles a2 and Re2).
Cornish has a T-V distinction, in that hwi can also be used as a polite form of address towards a single person. But this usage is become more and more uncommon in modern language.[8]

Personal Pronouns Combined with gans
Singular Plural
1st person genev
with me		 genen
with us
2nd person genes
with you		 genowgh
with you
3rd person ganso
with him/it		 gansa
with them
gensi
with her/it

Gans (with) combines with the personal pronouns.[8] So for example "I work with them" translates as My a ober gansa rather than *My a ober gans i. See also Possession.

Personal Pronouns Combined with dhe2
Singular Plural
1st person dhymm
to me		 dhyn
to us
2nd person dhis
to you		 dhywgh
to you
3rd person dhosho
to him/it		 dhedha
to them
dhedhi
to her/it

Dhe2 (to; at) also combines with the personal pronouns.[8] So for example "I sent a letter to you" translates as My a dhannvonas lyther dhis rather than *My a dhannvonas lyther dhe ty. See also Possession.

Yma soedhva dhyn ni ynwedh!
yma soedhva dhyn ni ynwedh
be office we.LAT we also
We have an office too!

The pronoun can be repeated in its uncombined form to add greater emphasis.[8]

Adjectives

Adjectives follow the noun they modify. Adjectives following singular feminine nouns take mutation form 2.[9]

Verbs

Tense

Present tense is unmarked. Some verbs take the suffix -as, and some take -is, for forming the past tense. And some verbs are irregular.[10]

Verb Tenses
Type of Verb Present Tense Past Tense
-as Ty a dhannvon
You send		 Ty a dhannvonas
You sent
-is Ty a gews
You speak		 Ty a gewsis
You spoke
Irregular Ty a woer
You know		 Ty a wodhva
You knew

Aspect

For perfect aspect, see Re2 - Perfect Aspect Particle.

Verbal Nouns (Infinitives)

Infinitives, or verbal nouns or verb-nouns as they are usually called in Cornish grammar, are derived in a variety of ways from the verbs basic form.[10]

Copulas

Cornish has two copulas: One that tells who, what or how something is, and one that tells where something is. The former one is yw in the third person singular form.[9]

An vro yw Pow Frynk.
an AGR\bro yw Pow.Frynk
DEF AGR\country be.3SG France
The country is France.

A third person singular subject pronoun may be dropped when yw is used, in which case yw is placed after its complement.[9]

Ki yw.
ki yw
dog be.3SG
He/she/it is a dog.

Yma is the copula that tells where something is. Yma is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.[11]

Yma Truru yn Kernow.
yma Truru yn Kernow
be Truro in Cornwall
Truro is in Cornwall.

No distinction is made between "is" and "there is" as in English.

Yma gwerthji y'n dre.
yma gwerthji y'n AGR\tre
be shop in.DEF AGR\town
There is a shop in the town.

Particles

A2 - Positive Polarity Item

The particle a2 is used before verbs in nominal sentences to mark for affirmative polarity.[9]

Hi a skrif dhe goweth.
hi a skrif dhe AGR\koweth
she PPI write to AGR\friend
She writes to a friend.

Ny2 - Negative Polarity Item

Ny2 is used for marking negative polarity. Sentences with ny2 are considered to be verbal and not nominal. Ny2 is only used with third person singular subjects.[12]

Ny gews ev Sowsnek.
ny AGR\kews ev Sowsnek
NPI AGR\speak he English
He doesn't speak English.

Usually the subject is placed after the verb. It can be placed before also, in which case the subject is strongly emphasized.[12]

My ny werth lyvrow.
my ny AGR\gwerth lyvrow
I NPI sell books
I don't sell books (but someone else might).

When a subject is emphasized like this, the past tense suffix of the verb agrees with the subject. (No agreement happens when the verb is positive, in present tense, or if the subject follows the verb.)[10]

Re2 - Perfect Aspect Particle

Re2 is used instead of a2 for forming the perfect aspect. It can be used with both present and past tense, but not with negative polarity. In negative verbs, simple and perfect are simply not distinguished.[10]

My re oberas yn soedhva.
my re ober-as yn soedhva
I PRF work-PST in office
I have worked in an office.

A - Vocative Particle

A is optionally used before names when calling out to someone.[2] For example a letter may begin with A Yowann ker - Dear Yowann.[10]

Syntax

Word Order

In some constructions in Cornish, a word may be moved to the beginning of the sentence to give it more emphasis.[12] Ev yw ki and ki yw ev both mean "it is a dog", but the latter sentence adds more emphasis to the word dog - "it is a dog and not some other animal". See also Ny2 - Negative Polarity Item and Can and Cannot.

Possession

There is no genitive morpheme in Cornish. Instead possession is shown by simply placing the possessor after the possessee.[11]

Kok an pyskador.
kok an pyskador
fishing.boat DEF fisherman
The fisherman's fishing boat.

Have-constructions, e.g. "X has Y", are construed as yma Y dhe2 X.[11]

Yma kok dhe byskador.
yma kok dhe AGR\pyskador
be fishing.boat to AGR\fisherman
A fisherman has a fishing boat.

This literally translates as "there is a fishing boat to a fisherman". Dhe2 combines with personal pronouns however.

Yma chi dhodho.
yma chi dhodho
be house he.LAT
He has a house.

There is another construction very similar to yma Y dhe2 X, but with gans (with) instead of dhe2. It describes a looser association than actual ownership.[12]

Yma myrgh gans benyn.
yma myrgh gans benyn
be daughter with woman
There is a woman with a daughter.

Gans also combines with pronouns.

Yma myrgh gensi.
yma myrgh gensi
be daughter with.her
She is with a daughter.

Can and Cannot

"I can" translates as y5 hallav, and "I can't" as ny2 allav. Both call for a verbal noun.[10]

Ny allav triga omma.
ny.allav trig-a omma
I.cannot live-INF here
I can't live here.
Y hallav skrifa dhis yn skon.
y.hallav skrif-a dhis yn.skon
I.can write-INF 2SG.LAT soon
I can write to you soon.

Y5 hallav implies that one can do something because of physical ability, or because one is allowed to. If one can do something because one has learned to do it, usually y5 hwonn or my a2 woer is used instead. My a2 woer makes a nominal sentence, and emphasizes the subject, while y5 hwonn is more neutral.[10]

Y hwonn kewsel Kernewek.
y.hwonn kews-el Kernewek
I.know speak-INF Cornish
I can speak Cornish.
My a woer kewsel Kernewek.
my a woer kews-el Kernewek
I PPI know speak-INF Cornish
I can speak Cornish.

Verbal Nouns with Adjectives

A sentence of the form "I am happy/sad to VERB", for example "I am happy to learn Cornish", makes use of the following construction: Lowen/trist ov vy dhe2 VERB-INF.[10]

​ Lowen ov vy dhe dhyski Kernewek.
lowen ov.vy dhe AGR\dysk-i Kernewek
happy I.am to AGR\learn-INF Cornish
I am happy to learn Cornish.
Trist ov vy dhe wertha ow hi.
trist ov.vy dhe AGR\gwertha ow AGR\ki
sad I.am to AGR\sell.INF my AGR\dog
I am sad to sell my dog.

References

  1. ↑ Cornish language at Wikipedia.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 Kernewek Dre Lyther, Reference Section.
  3. ↑ Wikipedia agrees with the difference that the vowel is also short when followed by two different consonants. It also says "some vowels have a tendency to be reduced to schwas [ə] in unstressed syllables". Kernewek Kemmyn at Wikipedia.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Kernewek Kemmyn at Wikipedia.
  5. ↑ See the paragraph about YW in Kernewek Dre Lyther, Reference Section.
  6. ↑ Listen for example to Piw yw y gesskrifer? at the very end of Kernewek Dre Lyther, Lesson 2, audio file.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Kernewek Dre Lyther, Lesson 1.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Kernewek Dre Lyther, Lesson 7.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Kernewek Dre Lyther, Lesson 2.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 Kernewek Dre Lyther, Lesson 6.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Kernewek Dre Lyther, Lesson 3.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Kernewek Dre Lyther, Lesson 4.


This article is one of quite a few pages about Natlangs.

Indo-european natlangs:

Balto-Slavic Natlangs: Czech * Russian
Celtic Natlangs: Revived Middle Cornish * Pictish
Germanic Natlangs:
North Germanic Natlangs: Norwegian
West Germanic Natlangs: Anglo-Saxon * Dutch * English (Old English * Middle English * Modern English * Scots) * German (High German * Low German)
Indo-Iranian Natlangs: Pahlavi
Italic Natlangs: French * Italian * Latin * Spanish
Debated: Cimmerian

Uralic Natlangs: Finnish * Khanty * Mansi * Mordvinic * Proto-Uralic
Altaic (controversial): Japanese
Sino-Tibetan Natlangs:
Uto-Aztecan Natlangs: Nahuatl

-

Isolate Natlangs: Basque * *
Hypothetical/debated Natlangs and Natlang families: Danubian * Europic (obsolete)

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