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{| class="wikitable" border=1
= k =
|+ '''Verbal Paradigm'''
! !! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing'' !! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
|| '''-''' || na'eta || na'eha || '''-''' || na'etam || na'ekam
|- align=center
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
|| ta'ena || '''-''' || ta'eha || ta'enam || '''-''' || ta'ekam
|- align=center
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''
|| ha'ena || ha'eta || '''-''' || ha'enam || ha'etam || ha'ekam
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
|| '''-''' || nameta || nameha || '''-''' || nametam || namekam
|- align=center
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''
|| tamena || '''-''' || tameha || tamenam || '''-''' || tamekam
|- align=center
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
|| kamena || kameta || kameha || kamenam || kametam || '''-'''
|-
|}
 
== Grammar ==
 
=== word order ===
 
* The usual, declarative formal word order is ''subject noun phrase - (object noun phrase) - verb phrase''.
:Example : He/She is preparing food.
::'''ha ina yaso'''
::''3sg food prepare''
 
* The "indirect object" exists only in the form of a prepositional phrase, and follows the object noun phrase.
:Example : The woman gives the house to me.
::'''naka ka'e na ke tsaka yeta'''
::''woman to 1S the house give''
 
:* This construction changes when both the subject (agent) and (indirect)/object (patient) are personal pronouns. In this case, the preposition/al (phrase) is unnecessary.
:Example : She gives the house to me.
::'''ha'ena ke tsaka yeta'''
::''3sg-TR-part-1sg a house give''
 
* A chart of the agent-patient transitivity constructions;
{| class="wikitable" border=1
|+ '''A-P''' ''construction''
! !! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing'' !! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
|| '''-''' || na'eta || na'eha || '''-''' || na'etam || na'ekam
|- align=center
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
|| ta'ena || '''-''' || ta'eha || ta'enam || '''-''' || ta'ekam
|- align=center
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''
|| ha'ena || ha'eta || '''-''' || ha'enam || ha'etam || ha'ekam
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
|| '''-''' || nameta || nameha || '''-''' || nametam || namekam
|- align=center
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''
|| tamena || '''-''' || tameha || tamenam || '''-''' || tamekam
|- align=center
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
|| kamena || kameta || kameha || kamenam || kametam || '''-'''
|-
|}
 
=== verbs ===
 
==== tense ====
 
*The present tense is indicated by the basic form.
:'''ha apua'''
:''3SG sing''
:He/She sings.
 
*The simple past tense is indicated by the suffix '''-ye'''.
:'''ha apuaye'''
:''3SG sing-PAST''
:He/She sang.
 
*The simple future tense is indicated by the suffix '''-tli'''.
:'''ha apuatli'''
:''3SG sing-FUT''
:He/She will sing.
 
*The tense may be left out if it is clearly indicated by another word in the same sentence, or when telling a story (the "historical" tense).
:'''ha yomatli apua'''
:''3SG day-FUT sing''
:He/She will sing tomorrow.
 
:'''ha semaye apua'''
:''3SG week-PAST sing''
:He/She sang last week.
 
==== mood ====
 
* Moods are indicated by affixes appended to verbs in all tenses.
 
*The negative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-k'''.
:'''kam inak'''
:''3PL eat-NEG''
:They are not eating. / They do not eat.
 
*The volitive mood is indicated by the suffix '''-ue''' (from '''ueha''' - to want, desire).
:'''nam tsomaueye'''
:''1PL smoke-VOL-PAST''
:We wanted to smoke.
 
*The necessitative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-he''' (from '''heta''' - to need, require).
:'''ta simahetlik'''
:''2S sit-NEC-FUT-NEG''
:You will not need to sit.
 
*The abilitative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-pa''' (from '''pala''' - to be able).
:'''na mokupa'''
:''1S sleep-ABIL''
:I can sleep. / I am able to sleep.
 
=== nouns ===
 
==== affect/degree ====
 
* The diminutive is formed with '''-hi''', and the augmentative with '''-ha'''. These are respectively realized as '''-ki''' and '''-ka''' when attached to a word that has a final syllable containing '''h''' or '''y'''.
:Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
:Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''tsakahi''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion
 
* These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
:Example : '''yanahi''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green
 
* In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
:Example : '''tahaka''' - bigger/biggest | '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka''' - His house is bigger than mine.
:Example : '''yanaha''' - more yellow/most yellow | '''ke huam tayo yanaha''' - Your flowers are the most yellow.
 
==== plurals ====
 
* Concrete nouns are pluralized by suffixing '''-m'''.
:Examples :  '''kono''' - stone > '''konom''' - stones | '''naka''' - woman > '''nakam''' - women
 
* When the last syllable of a word contains an '''m''', the plural is marked by reduplicating the final vowel.
:Examples : '''kama''' - village > '''kama'a''' - villages | '''yama''' - mountain > '''yama'a''' - mountains
 
* Collective (plural) nouns are marked by prefixing '''tli-'''.
:Examples : '''tsaka''' - house > '''tlitsaka''' - neighborhood | '''yama''' - mountain > '''tliyama''' - mountain range
 
* Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
:Example : '''sahi''' - color > '''sahim''' - colors > '''sahi ya'o''' - five color(s)
 
* Adjectives do not show plural agreement. However, when an adjective is used nominally, it can be pluralized.
:Example : '''nyeli''' - pink > '''nyelim''' - (the) pink (ones)
 
==== gender ====
 
*In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings '''-ta''' and '''-na'''.
:Example : '''nikata''' "a male dog", '''nikana''' "a female dog".
 
==== articles ====
 
*There is only one article in '''Kala''', '''ke'''. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".
 
*It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
:Example : '''kama''' "village", '''ke kama''' "the/a village", '''ke kama'a''' "the villages"
:Example : '''inahi''' "snack", '''ke inahi''' "the/a snack", '''ke inahim''' "the snacks"
 
=== questions ===
 
*When asking questions in '''Kala''', the idea, or concept, is the ''subject'', and the entire construction is followed by the interrogative particle '''ka'''.
 
*'''ama...ka''' - when, lit: ''time...INT''
 
*'''ko...ka''' - who, lit: ''person [Agentive]...INT''
 
*'''koyo...ka''' - whose, lit: ''person-POSS...INT''
 
*'''nye...ka''' - why, lit: ''reason...INT''
 
*'''no...ka''' - what, lit: ''thing [Instrument]...INT''
 
*'''mo...ka''' - where, lit: ''place...INT''
 
*'''to...ka''' - how, what manner, lit: ''manner/method...INT''
 
*'''ku / o...ka''' - how much/many, lit: ''number/amount...INT''
 
==== examples ====
 
*'''ama nam yalatli ka'''
:''time 1PL go-FUT INT''
:When will we go?
 
*'''ko ke tlaka ka'''
:''person that man INT''
:Who is that man?
 
*'''nye kam hina ka'''
:''reason 3PL here INT''
:Why are they here?
 
*'''no a ka''' / '''itla ka'''
:''thing be INT'' / ''this INT''
:What is this?
 
*'''koyo kama ke yama hina ka'''
:''person-POSS village the mountain near INT''
:Whose village is near the mountain?
 
*'''mo satila nayo ka'''
:''place sandwich 1SG-POSS INT''
:Where is my sandwich?
 
*'''to nam yalatli ka'''
:''manner 1PL travel-FUT INT''
:How will we travel?
 
*'''ku ekam yetaye ka'''
:''amount TR-3PL give-PAST INT''
:How many were they given?
 
=== pronouns ===
 
{| class="wikitable" border=1
|-
! !! ''Nominative'' !! ''Accusative'' !! ''Possessive'' !! ''Reflexive'' !! ''Reciprocal''
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
|| na || ena || nayo || na'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
|| ta || eta ||tayo || ta'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''
|| ha || eha || hayo || ha'i || ''' '''
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
|| nam || enam || namyo || nami || nanku
|- align=center
! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' (EXCL)
|| na'am || ena'am || na'amyo || na'ami || na'anku
|- align=center
! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''
|| tam || etam || tamyo || tami || tanku
|- align=center
! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
|| kam || ekam || kamyo || kami || kanku
|-
|}
 
==== examples ====
 
*'''ina namyo'''
:''food 1PL-POSS''
:Our food.
 
*'''kami itsa'''
:''3PL-REFL love''
:They love themselves.
 
*'''tanku moto ka'''
:''2PL-RECP remember INT''
:Do you remember each other?
 
*'''eha unyatlik'''
:''ACC-3SG understand-FUT-NEG''
:He/She will not be understood.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:200px; height:200px;"
|+ Multiplication table
|-
! ×
! 1
! 2
! 3
|-
! 1
| 1 || 2 || 3
|-
! 2
| 2 || 4 || 6
|-
! 3
| 3 || 6 || 9
|-
! 4
| 4 || 8 || 12
|-
! 5
| 5 || 10 || 15
|}
 
= =
 
{|
| A || B
|-
| C || D
|}

Revision as of 12:02, 3 January 2013

k

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