Kosi

0. Introduction

Meki ecinem mecuta me harikaa josol.

The above sentence means "The man who removes a mountain begins by carrying away small stones"; literally, "A mountain undoer begins like this: he carries away small stones". This sample is in Kosi, an agglutinative, primarily SOV, Finno-Ugric language with strong lexical influence from Indonesian and a smattering of loanwords from Romance, Germanic, Arabic, Silindion, and Quenya, among others. This page contains a short description of Kosi grammar and a dictionary with over three hundred entries. Some distinctive features of Kosi include: approximately forty cases, a rich aspectual and modal system, optional specification of tense, a base-twenty numeric system, permissibility of a large number of participles, and much more!

... A few more sentences:

Kosi	Rough translation	Gloss
Em viua ðinehite de ðisitovau.	A person cannot increase his life, but he can improve it.	You can't add more years to your life, but you can add more life to your years.
Vinda boem boe.	A person who dies for the sake of life did not die.	Those who die for life cannot be called dead.
Oistr staber hinom... ¿De kombaenan.	The oyster and the strawberry are tasty: but combined?	Oysters are a fine thing, so are strawberries: but mashed together?

In translating Kosi into English, I have omitted listing all third-person singular pronouns, as this would be redundant: Kosi does not distinguish gender in its pronominal system.

1. Phonology

• 1.1. Phonemic Inventory
• Kosi's phonemic inventory contains fifteen consonants, seven vowels, and four diphthongs, making a total of twenty six phonemes, described below.

• 1.1.1. Consonants

Grapheme	Description	Allophones
P p	voiceless bilabial stop
B b	voiced bilabial stop
M m	voiced bilabial nasal
V v	voiced labiodental fricative
Ð ð	voiced interdental fricative	has merged with d in some dialects
T t	voiceless dental stop
D d	voiced dental stop
N n	voiced dental nasal	palatal before j
S s	voiceless dental fricative	voiced intervocalically unless written geminate; before i, voiceless and postalveolar word-initially, voiced intervocalically unless written ssi
C c	voiceless lamino-alveolar affricate	before i, voiceless and lamino-postalveolar
L l	voiced alveolar lateral	in an *lVl syllable, the second l becomes r
R r	voiced alveolar trill	in an *rVr syllable, the second r becomes d
J j	voiced palatal glide
K k	voiceless velar stop	voiceless velar fricative intervocalically
H h	voiceless glottal fricative

• 1.1.2. Vowels

Grapheme	Description
I i	close front unrounded monophthong
Ü ü	close front rounded monophthong
E e	open-mid front unrounded monophthong
Ö ö	open-mid front rounded monophthong
U u	close back rounded monophthong
O o	close-mid back rounded monophthong
A a	open back unrounded monophthong (schwa word-finally)

Note that vowels in Kosi are backed or fronted in certain environments for certain grammatical purposes; when the vowels i and e are backed, they become Ï/ï and Ë/ë (the unrounded counterparts of u and o respectively), but these vowels are never found in lexical roots.

• 1.1.3. Diphthongs

Grapheme	Description
JA ja	palatalized open back unrounded monophthong
JO jo	palatalized close-mid back rounded monophthong
AE ae	open back-close front unrounded diphthong
AU au	open back-close back rounded diphthong

All other vowel combinations are pronounced disyllabically (heis 'incorrect' = he.is), except for combinations in which the vowel is geminate, where the vowel becomes long (dunja 'world (nominative)' plus -a > dunjaa 'world (accusative)').

• 1.2. Stress
• Primary stress falls on the first syllable of a word, secondary stress on the third syllable, and tertiary stress on the fifth syllable.

• 1.3. Syllable Structure
• Kosi's syllable formula is (C)V(C). Most clusters of two consonants are allowed, except consonant+liquid clusters like *bl, *tr, and *rl. Assimilation takes place in words like svanü 'sour' and suradka 'village', so that the v is voiceless and the k is voiced.

• 1.4. Svarabhakti Vowel
• If the addition of an affix to a root or another affix would cause an awkward consonant cluster, a svarabhakti (epenthetic) vowel i is added, e.g. has 'house' + -nde 'for the sake of' > hasinde 'for the sake of the house'. This also applies to foreign words, but the i is added only in speech (the name remains the same as in the source language in writing), e.g. Tristan is pronounced as if spelled Tiristn.

2. Morphology

2.1. Nominal and Adjectival Morphology

• 2.1.1. Argument Roles
• Agents take the nominative case, whose ending is -0 (i.e., a null morpheme): man kel 'the man speaks'. Patients take the accusative case, whose ending is -a: hasa binöd 'we are building a house'. Experiencers and focuses take the dative case, whose ending is -e: buka anake adim 'I gave a book to the child', vamelka 'I am cold', vantülauar 'I am a teacher'.

2.1.2. Oblique Cases

Preposition(s) or Phrase(s)	Affix	Example
above, over	-ab	hasab
after, behind	-ive	hasive, ötive
all of, complete	-ko	hasko
alongside, beside, next to	-ari	hasari
around, surrounding	-ja	hasja, ötja
as, like, similar to	-ken	hasken
before, in front of, prior to	-öm	hasöm, ötöm
between, among	-ki-	haskiulis, ötkissab
by means of, via	-i	hasi
compared to, than, pertaining to	-ra	hasra
composed of	-alja	hasalja
down to	-era	hasera
during, in the middle of	-oc	hasoc, ötoc
far from	-aci	hasaci
for, in order to benefit	-vo (plus dative)	hasvoe
for the purpose of	-jol	hasjol
for the sake of	-nde	hasinde
from, out of, away from, derived from	-il	hasil
in, inside, at	-ahe	hasahe, ötahe
into, towards	-tah	hastah
in exchange for, instead of	-ndo	hasindo
left of the listener	-oli	hasoli
left of the speaker	-eli	haseli
near to	-jah	hasjah
of, associated with	-ü	hasü
on (top of)	-on	hason
onto	-tan	hastan
outside of	-ahi	hasahi
part of, some, any	-o	haso
per, for every	-alah	hasalah
right of the listener	-oðe	hasoðe
right of the speaker	-ene	hasene
through, across, beyond, past	-eð	haseð, öteð
under, below, beneath	-jal	hasjal
until, as far as	-jok	hasjok, ötjok
up towards	-kl	haskl
with, accompanying	-um	hasum
without, lacking	-jan	hasjan

These endings can also be applied to verbs: lominarum 'he must go with you'.

2.1.3. Possession

Possessor	Meaning	Ending	Example
First person singular	'my'	-im	hassim
Second person singular	'your'	-at	hassat
Third person singular	'his'	-u	hassu
First person plural exclusive	'our (but excluding you)'	-öd	hassöd
First person plural inclusive	'our (and including you)'	-ic	hassic
Second person plural	'you guys' '	-üt	hassüt
Third person plural	'their'	-ed	hassed

These endings may be nominalized by standing alone: anakat imüa 'that child is mine'. When this is the case, they can take case endings; their accusative and dative forms are irregular, ending in -l and -n respectively (rather than the expected -a and -e). Kosi also has no genetive; instead, the nouns are joined together and the property is put into the third-person possessive singular declension: man hassu 'a man's house', man hessu 'a man's houses', men hassu 'the men's house', men hessu 'the men's houses'. Kosi has no verb meaning 'to have', either; instead, Kosi uses periphrasis: hassim neb 'I have a house/my house exists'.

• 2.1.4. Plural
• The first vowel of the root is backed if front (i, ü, e, ö) or fronted if back (o, u, a):

Ablaut change	Example
i > ï	sim 'eye(ball)' > sïm
ü > u	tüs 'fire' > tus
e > ë	me 'ocean/sea' > më
ö > o	köpek 'dog' > kopek
o > ö	hojo 'river' > höjo
u > ü	buk 'book' > bük
a > e	ha 'tree' > he

2.1.5. Demonstratives

Demonstrative	Suffix	Example
'this'	-ut	hassut
'that'	-at	hassat
'yon'	-öt	hassöt

Instead of having separate plural forms for demonstratives, the head noun is pluralized: bükut 'these books'. These endings may be nominalized by standing alone: atl amihe 'I don't like that'. When this is the case, they can take case endings; their accusative and dative forms are irregular, ending in -l and -n respectively (rather than the expected -a and -e).

• 2.1.6. Concordance Rules
• Adjectives must agree in case and number with the nouns they modify. Adjectives can be used attributively and predicatively without change, but in the latter case, the adjective can be conjugated: kot masse 'a happy boy' ~ masse kot 'the boy is happy' ~ masseat kohtau 'that boy is made happy [by X]'. Declension of adjectives and nouns is identical. Nouns used with quantifiers require the partitive case: öt 'five' + has 'house' > öt haso 'five houses'.

2.1.7. Comparison

Type	Meaning	Prefix	Example
Comparative of inferiority	'less'	ja-	janae
Comparative of superiority	'more'	si-	sinae
Superlative of inferiority	'least'	hae-	hanae
Superlative of superiority	'most'	ru-	runae
Equative	'as...as'	kö-	könae

2.2. Verbal Morphology

• 2.2.1. Person
• Kosi has two persons: first and second; two numbers: singular and plural; and an exclusive ~ inclusive distinction in first person plural.

Person	Nominative	Accusative	Dative
First person singular	-im, -ih	-am, -ab	va-
Second person singular	-at, -ak	-ar, -eb	ða-
First person plural exclusive	-öd, -ök	-un, -ür	vi-
First person plural inclusive	-ös, -ic	-in, -jac	de-
Second person plural	-ah, -üat	-es, -uan	ke-

Note the presence of two suffixes in the nominative and accusative columns. The second suffix is merely an allomorph of the first one, occurring when the previous syllable ends in the consonant of the root suffix. E.g. the first-person singular conjugation of the verb am- 'to love' is amih, rather than *amim.

Third person does not manifest itself whatsoever in the Kosi conjugational system. If a Kosi sentence lacks e.g. a subject, this implies the intended subject (or other argument(s)) is redundant: it was already specified.

• 2.2.2. Tense
• Kosi has optional tense-marking; it uses adverbials here: kaci baru 'he tried again recently', min dme 'he will go tomorrow'.

2.2.3. Aspect

Aspect	Mark	Example	Gloss
Aorist	-a	kela	'he speaks (timeless)'
Habitual	to-	tokel	'he speaks (regularly)'
Inceptive	me-	mekel	'he begins to speak'
Inchoative	me-	mekek	'it becomes blue'
Perdurative	jat-	jatkel	'he continuously speaks'
Causative	-au	kelamau	'he causes me to speak'
Cessative	bo-	bokel	'he ceases speaking'
Pausative	ta-	takel	'he stops eating (for a while)'
Resumptive	tö-	tökel	'he resumes eating'
Protractive	el-	elkel	'he speaks for a long time'
Iterative	-i	keli	'he speaks again'
Random	vi-	vikel	'he speaks here and there/at odd intervals'
Frequentative	cu-	cukel	'he speaks a lot'
Experiential	sa-	satahlahtim	'I've gone there before'
Volitional	n-	nhal	'he listens'

2.2.3. Mood

Mood	Mark	Example	Gloss
Indicative	-0 (i.e., a null morpheme) plus at least some aspect-marking	kel	'he is speaking'
Subjunctive	kö-	kömin	'he might go'
Negative	-e	kele	'he didn't go'
Imperative	a-, as-, on-	¡Atahlaht! 'Go!', ¡Astahlaht! '(You guys) go!', ¡Ontahlaht! 'Let's go!'
Conditional	te-... küc	temin, küc...	'if he goes, the result will be the following: ...'
Obligative	lo-	lomin	'he must go'
Abilitative	ði-	ðimin	'he can go'
Permissive	pa-	pamin	'he has permission to go'
Interrogative	ko-	¿Kopamin.	'May I go?'

2.2.4. Voice

Voice	Mark	Example	Gloss
Active	-0 (i.e., a null morpheme)	kel	'he speaks'
Passive	-h- (added after the first vowel of the root)	kehl	'he is spoken to' (the original subject is always omitted)
Inverse	left-dislocation plus pronoun	man, kel	'the man, he speaks'
Reflexive	rü-	rükel	'he speaks to himself'
Reciprocal	r- (if the root-initial consonant is r, it is replaced with l)	rkel	'they speak to each other'
Applicative	locative or temporal affixes are suffixed to the verb	kelira (< kel- 'to speak' plus -ra 'pertaining to')	'he discusses'

2.2.6. Frame Verbs

Kosi	Rough translation	Gloss
Uta akim loncünan neb.	I believe the following: something which must be worried about (a problem) exists.	I believe there to be a problem.
Uta varim behlir hajoskja koran.	I promised as follows: I will return the money soon.	I promised him to return the money.
Uta modim behlir hajos koran.	I ordered as follows: he returns the money soon.	I ordered him to return the money.

• 2.2.7. Switch-Reference
• Verbal affixes used for switch-reference are the following: nö- 'simultaneity', lö- 'sequentiality', -kja 'same subject', and -da 'different subject'.

Kosi	Gloss
Nömistan.	He sang while dancing.
Lömistan.	He sang and then danced.
Nömistanda.	He1 sang while he2 danced.
Lömistanda.	He1 sang and then he2 danced.
Metemin küc tanim.	If he sings I would dance.
Metemissim küc lörotankja.	If I sing then I have to dance (afterwards).
Uta kel nömistan.	He1 said that he1 sang while he1 danced.
Uta kel lömistan.	He1 said that he1 sang and then he1 danced.
Uta kel nömis tanda.	He1 said that he1 sang while he2 danced.
Uta kel lömis tanda.	He1 said that he1 sang and then he2 danced.
Uta kel nömisda tankja.	He1 said that he2 sang while he1 danced.
Uta kel lömisda tankja.	He1 said that he2 sang and then he1 danced.

Some sentences require more detail:

Kosi	Gloss
John uta kel misda Jan nötan.	He2 said that he1 sang while he2 danced.
John temis küc nötanda.	If he2 sang, then he1 would dance.
Uta kel John mis Anne lötan.	He1 said that he2 sang and then he3 danced.

2.3. Derivational Morphology

2.3.1. Nominalizers

Process	Mark	Example 1	Example 2
Substantivization	vowel height change: i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, o > u, u > o, a > a	tov 'good' > tuv 'goodness'	tüs- 'to burn' > tös 'fire'
Gerund	-aht	kel- 'to speak' > kelaht 'an act of speaking'	cet- 'to help' > cetaht 'an act of helping'
Gerundive	-ahm	kel- 'to speak' > kelahm 'while speaking'	mis- 'to sing' > missahm 'while singing'
Substantive participle	vowel height change: i > e, ü > ö, e > i, ö > ü, o > u, u > o, a > a plus -h- (added after the first vowel of the root)	kel- 'to speak' > kihl 'language'	es- 'to eat' > ihs 'food'
Locative participle	-han	ntölar 'student' > ntölarhan 'school'	biltah 'to sell' > biltahhan 'store'
Personal participle	-em	barat 'loyal' > baratem 'friend'	tov 'good' > tovem 'good person'
Person working in a profession or follower of an ideology	-ar	mis- 'to sing' > missar 'musician'	sosial 'social' > sosialar 'socialist'
Inhabitant of	-uni	Kosi 'Kosia' > Kosiuni 'Kosian'	Tera 'Earth' > Terauni 'Terran'

2.3.2. Adjectivizers

Process	Mark	Example 1	Example 2
Adjectivization	-kal	lat- 'to see' > latkal 'visual'	mis- 'to sing' > miskal 'musical'
Opposite of	e-	baratem 'friend' > ebaratem 'enemy'	kamn 'common' > ekamn 'rare'
'tendency towards'	-öra	kel- 'to speak' > kelöra 'talkative'
'rich/full of'	ending -nja	para 'money' > paranja 'wealthy'	ves 'water' > vessöra 'wet'
Active participle	-ak	kel- 'to speak' > kelak 'speaking'	mis- 'to sing' > misak 'singing'
Passive participle	-an	kel- 'to speak' > kelan 'spoken'	mis- 'to sing' > misan 'sung'

2.3.3. Universally Applicable Derivations

Process	Mark	Example 1	Example 2
Intensive	-jo	vila 'having reflected light' > viljo 'it glared'	ntölarhan 'school' > ntölarhanjo 'university'
Moderative	-co	vila 'having reflected light' > vilco 'it shined'	ntölarhan 'school' > ntölarhanco 'high school'
Attenuative	-ka	vila 'having reflected light' > vilka 'it shimmered'	ntölarhan 'school' > ntölarhanka 'elementary school'
Crescendo	-is	vila 'having reflected light' > vilis 'it glimmered, shined, then glared'
Decrescendo	-ne	vila 'having reflected light' > vilne 'it glared, shined, then glimmered'
Surfeit	ci-	nja 'much' > cinja 'too much'	berat 'strong' > ciberat 'too big'

2.3.4. Examples of More Complex Derivations

Root	Derivation
cin- 'to do'	ðicinkal 'doable'
dolos- 'to work'	dolosakkal 'unemployed'
ha 'wood'	haalja 'wooden'
hari 'stone'	harialja 'made of stone'
has 'house'	hasakkal 'homeless'
kedi 'cat'	kediken 'cat-like'
kek 'blue'	kekken 'bluish'
lat- 'to see'	ðilatkal 'visible'

3. Syntax Basic word order is SOV. Adjectives follow their head - numerals are exceptions. Relative clauses are formed using participles: kelak man 'the man who spoke/the spoken man', nessakim essanük 'the food I want to eat/the I-want-eat food'.

• 4. Correlatives
• The following elements can be combined to make correlatives:

Kosi	English
-ut	this
-at	that
ko-	which, what
-jan	no
-o	some, whatever, whichever
-ko	each, every
em	one
tin	thing
kas	kind, type
lok	place
mec	manner
des	way, direction
rason	reason
vahtu	time
monta	quantity

E.g.

Kosi	Gloss
emut	this person
tinat	that thing
¿Kokas.	Which type?
lokjan	nowhere
meco	somehow, anyhow, however
desko	in every direction
rasonut	this reason
¿Kovahtu.	At what time?
montao	some amount, any amount, however much

5. Lexicon

Kosi	Gloss
abit-	to live, to inhabit
ad-	to give, to add
ada	branch
adi	sheep
ajan-	to offer
ak-	to believe, to take as fact
al-	to stand (to be standing)
alun-	to sleep (dami- in perfect aspect)
am-	to love (sed- in protractive aspect)
an	mother
anaja	brother (of a male person)
anak	child
ananu	grandmother (maternal)
anjn	onion
antau	grandfather (maternal)
antah-	to grant (har- in perfect aspect)
areba	sister (of a male person)
at	door, gate
atap	roof, ceiling
atetis	future
aun-	to experience, to undergo
aval	shelf
avan	cloud, clump, part, chunk, piece
avi	bird
badan	body
bajan	hollow
banjak	much, many, numerous, lots
banjak vahtu	frequently, (lit.) many times
bara	brother (of a female)
barat	loyal
baru	new, recent
baerak	flag, banner
beh-	to meet
behi	cow
benca	same, equal
berat	difficult, tedious, strong, sturdy, heavy, hard, complex, advanced, interesting, intelligent
beri	special, important
betü	letter, symbol, glyph, character
bilir-	to buy
biltah-	to sell
bin-	to create, to construct, to build, to invent, to draw
bit-	to prove
bor	wine
borbehnjol	grape, (lit.) that which is used for making wine
bos	chief, leader, boss
buk	book
bukas	open
bukase	closed
bulan	moon
bulat	round, circular
butuh-	to need
cah-	to be involved with, to be related to, to have something to do with
cer-	to write
cet-	to help, to assist, to aid
cin-	to do, to make
de	but, however
dekat	short, brief, low, shallow, near(by), close, slender, narrow, thin
des-	to dislike
dme	tomorrow
dob-	to throw, to toss
dolos-	to work
dom	hill
dos-	to win
duha	also
dunja	world, planet
e	no
ebenca	different, eccentric
ecin-	to remove, to subtract, to delete
eduha	only
ehset-	to barter
erus-	to fail
ek	sky
ek ves	rain, (lit.) sky water
ekam	rare
ekot	sad, unhappy
em	person
emahal	cheap
enehit-	to decrease, to diminish
enaju	unnatural, abnormal, strange
entis	past
eparanja	poor, impoverished
epl	apple
eplsvanü	lemon
eplsvanüd	lime
eraldi	weather, climate
erin-	to touch
ermah	mean, unkind
es-	to eat
et-	to understand, to comprehend
etis	dirty, murky, untidy
ev	year
ha	tree
ha loka	forest, (lit.) tree place
hajos-	to return (< hasjos- 'to bring home')
hal-	to hear, to listen, to perceive audibly
hari	stone, rock
harja	brush
has	house
hat	back, dorsum
hato	cake, pie, pastry
heis	right, correct, true
hes-	to paint
het	week
hecn	wrong, incorrect
hibas	defective (having defects)
hilca	key
hiset-	to pay
hitam	black
hodit-	to translate
hojo	river
hondol-	to think (act of thinking)
hul	mood, atmosphere, emotion
hus	left (as opposed to right)
hü	grass
hü loka	field, park, (lit.) grass place
idö	time (the fourth dimension)
idöta	present, now
ildis	star
ilom	nephew, neice, grandchild
ima	air
is-	to drink
isel-	to taste (perceive by the sense of taste)
ja	yes
jac-	to play (e.g. a game)
jal	jealousy
jalan	finger, toe
jauh	long, lengthy, tall, high, deep, far, fat, wide, thick, distance
jos-	to bring, to carry
josk-	to cut
jön	beautiful, pretty, handsome, good-looking, nice-looking, aesthetically pleasing
ka	arm
kac-	to try, to attempt, to endeavor
kaet-	to use (to make use of)
kala	fish
kalimat	sentence (cf. phrase)
kama	room, chamber
kamn	common
kanal	canal, channel, ditch
kanto	office
kap-	to receive, to obtain, to get
kata	word
katabuk	dictionary
kedi	cat
kedvel-	to enjoy
kein-	to change
kek	blue
kel-	to speak, to talk, to communicate, to say, to make a proposition, to ask (a question), to state a question
kel- ekot	to complain, (lit.) express dissatisfaction
kelah-	to exist (neb- in all aspectual conjugations, kelah- used otherwise)
kelanük binu	grammar, (lit.) language structure
kepala	head, pot
keras	firm, steady; loud
kerat	carrot
keris-	to seek
kes-	to begin, to start, to commence
ket-	to cook
kilap	comforting
kirut-	to summon (< kihlirokutau-, to call by speech)
kinjo	lunch, midday meal
kirja	boat
kohim-	to lie down
kombat-	to fight, to combat
koran	early, before, already, previous, quick, fast, rapid
kosmo	space (outer space)
kot	happy, contented
könü	easy, light (opposite of heavy), weak, unstable, soft, simple, basic, primitive, dull, stupid
köpek	dog
kör-	to occur, to happen
kös-	to thank
Kös! (colloquial), Kösmital! (to one person; formal), Kösmiütl! (to more than one person; formal)	Thanks!, Thank you!
kötü	bad, evil
köv-	to follow, to go after
kukambr	cucumber
kula	gold
kuma	abyss, void, space
kura-	to sacrifice
kuras	monarch
kuras lanu	princess, (lit.) king's daughter
kuras massu	prince
küveta	president
kül-	to send, to dispatch, to transmit, to convey
küs-	to greet
¡Küs. (colloquial), Küsmital! (to one person; formal), Küsmiütl! (to more than one person; formal)	Hello!, Hi!
lah-	to run (to move quickly)
laht-	to move
lahtah-	to go, (lit.) to move from (min- used in third person conjugations and derivations, lahtah- used otherwise)
lahtil-	to come, (lit.) to move to
lak-	to ride
lambat	late, after, still, next, slow
lan	girl, daughter
lantae	floor
lastr	lobster
lat-	to see
lehd-	to say farewell/goodbye to (opposite of küs)
Lehd! (colloquial), Lehdmital! (to one person; formal), Lehdmiütl! (to more than one person; formal)	Bye!, Goodbye!
lek-	to read (ome- in all aspectual conjugations, lek- used otherwise)
lekem	bread, grain
lep-	to remain, to be left over (from)
leske	lesson
lir-	to describe
loka	place, location
lop-	to steal
lora	flower, plant, vegetation
lora loka	garden, (lit.) plant place
lot-	to hope
luh-	to pull someone's hair
lun-	to clean the plate and lick the fingers, to eat to one's heart's content
mahal	expensive, costly
man	man
man kuras	king
mapar	boyfriend, husband
mas	boy, son
me	ocean, sea
mendu	mango
meki	mountain
melek	warm
meret	size
minut	minute
mis-	to sing
mosso-	to smile
mot-	to kill, to destroy
naju	natural, normal
nae	big
naeru	awe and respect for something dangerous
nasta	weapon
ncön-	to worry
nehit-	to increase, to augment
nena	banana
net-	to laugh
nil	arrow
nit-	to play an instrument
njama	meat, flesh, skin
nol	zero, none, nothing
nolok	nowhere, (lit.) every place
nolvahtu	never (lit.) no time
nom	name, noun
nomjosau-	to call, to give the name X to, (lit.) to cause to carry the name X
ntül-	to learn, to study
nü	woman
nü kuras	queen
nüpar	girlfriend, wife
olaht-	to leave, (lit.) move elsewhere
or	hour
ot	other
ö	evening, night
örek	old
pa(k)- (prefixed to verb)	Please (contracted form of the defective verb root *pak- 'to ask (a favour)').
padat	dense
pahin	page, piece of paper
panja-	to fix, to rig, to put in place
par	partner (of either gender in either a dating or married relationship)
para	money, currency
paranja	rich, wealthy
pas-	to spend
pemin-	to govern, to administrate
pes-	to consider, to ponder
pinjo-	to opine, to be of the opinion that
piros	red
pomad-	to walk
raka	wolf
ramah	kind, nice
rauta	metal
rendah	low (in pitch)
resber	raspberry
respon-	to answer, to respond, to reply
riba	small fish
rih-	to laugh (maliciously)
rus-	to succeed
sab	leg
sab kepalau	foot, (lit.) head of the leg
sahil	beach, shore, coast
sakit	ill, sick, unhealthy
sal-	to sing
sav-	to be familiar with (tanu- in all aspectual conjugations, sav- used otherwise)
sedik	small, little
sek	chair
sekn	second (time)
seri	celery
setn	certain
setnec	possible, maybe
sim	eye(ball)
sir-	to cry
sol	sun, day, today
söh	sister (of a female)
sön	young
sötet	dark
spital	hospital
staber	strawberry
sto	awake
sukin	zucchini
surad	city, town
suradka	village
surat	letter (written message addressed to a person or organization)
suven-	to remember, to recall
süt-	to boil
svanü	sour
svarbat-	to interfere with, to interrupt
ta	father
taanu	grandmother (paternal)
taht-	to inspire
tal-	to find, to discover
tala	table, desk; flat surface
tam-	to attack
tan-	to dance
tanan	hand
tat-	to keep, to retain
tatau	grandfather (paternal)
taua	tower
te	road, path, course, line, direction, way
teitu	potato
tem	subject, theme, topic
tenap	yesterday
ter	land
tes-	to put, to place
tev	health
tis	sad
tista	clean, clear, plain, tidy
to	lake
toko	store, shop
tov	good, well
tud-	to know (a fact)
tuli	wind [noun]
tulim	window (< tuli sim 'wind-eye')
tüs-	to burn
u	or
ulis	street
utas-	to travel
ül-	to sit
ülke	nation, state, country
ürün	merchandise, products, goods
üt-	to hit, to strike
vah-	to wait
vahtu	time, occurrence of
vako	dinner, supper
val-	to choose
van-	to float
var-	to promise
ved	green
ved-	to defend
vel-	to forget
velok-	to lose, to misplace (< vel- loka)
ves	water
vi	life
vidam	funny, comical
vila	having reflected or illuminated light
visit-	to visit

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