Tsakxa verbs: Difference between revisions
m (→Commonalities) |
mNo edit summary |
||
Line 21: | Line 21: | ||
Negativity is marked with the particle ''pa'', which is placed in a variety of places depending on emphasis and personal taste. Reduplication to ''apa'' creates an emphatic 'no' or 'never': | Negativity is marked with the particle ''pa'', which is placed in a variety of places depending on emphasis and personal taste. Reduplication to ''apa'' creates an emphatic 'no' or 'never': | ||
: ''Wen | : ''Wen apa su wes'' - I never eat meat (meat never 1ps eat<sup>0</sup>) | ||
An emphatic declarative is also possible with the particle ''ʔu'' which works in much the same way as ''pa'': | An emphatic declarative is also possible with the particle ''ʔu'' which works in much the same way as ''pa'': | ||
: ''Wen | : ''Wen ʔu su wes'' - I always eat meat (meat DECL.EMPH 1ps eat<sup>0</sup>) | ||
=== Voice/agreement === | === Voice/agreement === | ||
Line 31: | Line 31: | ||
Tsakxa has what is termed by Dawkins as an 'information saliency voice system'. The verb agrees with the 'main argument' or 'focus', which is usually the topic but can also introduce new information in some contexts. When the focus is the agent, the prefix is null: | Tsakxa has what is termed by Dawkins as an 'information saliency voice system'. The verb agrees with the 'main argument' or 'focus', which is usually the topic but can also introduce new information in some contexts. When the focus is the agent, the prefix is null: | ||
: ''Kangqa ta-nxa | : ''Kangqa su ta-nxa'' - as for the beast, it saw me (beast 1ps see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
When the focus is the patient, the prefix is a ''se-'' | When the focus is the patient, the prefix is a ''se-'' | ||
: ''Wen se-wes'' - The meat is eaten | : ''Wen se-wes'' - The meat is eaten (meat ABS<sup>-3</sup>-eat<sup>0</sup>) | ||
When the focus is an adverbial argument, it takes no case marking itself, but the prefix mimics the case marking (before allomorphy): | When the focus is an adverbial argument, it takes no case marking itself, but the prefix mimics the case marking (before allomorphy): | ||
: ''Waspa nqe-kaq-enxa'' - We sat down in the tent ( | : ''Waspa nqe-kaq-enxa'' - We sat down in the tent (tent INESS<sup>-3</sup>-sit<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup> | ||
: ''Tenqa a-seweq | : ''Tenqa umut-anxa a-seweq'' - This gift is for Tenqa (Tenqa gift-this DAT<sup>-3</sup>-intended<sup>0</sup>) | ||
=== Causativity === | === Causativity === | ||
Causatives are formed simply by adding | Causatives are formed simply by adding an ergative argument and demoting any existing ergative arguments to absolutives: | ||
: ''Pema | : ''Pema Nunu-kxa se-utshu-nxa'' - Pema was made to commit suicide/was made to die by Nunu (Pema Nunu-ERG ABS<sup>-3</sup>-die<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
== Suffix slot == | |||
The suffix slot is the final slot in the verbal complex. All of the suffixes that attach here are clitics which may also attach to noun phrases and have various different purposes. Only one suffix may be placed in the slot, although in older texts it appears that these clitics could be stacked. | |||
=== Conjunctive form === | === Conjunctive form === | ||
Line 53: | Line 57: | ||
The conjunctive or participle form is derived from monopartite verbs simply with the suffix ''-u''. Regular bipartite verbs form the conjunctive in much the same way after joining their two stems together, but many bipartite verbs have forms acquired by suppletion. The conjunctive form is used in sentences alongside a 'main verb'. The 'main verb' carries the vast majority of the inflection and grammatical information, which is then transferred to the conjunctive. This construction expresses two connected actions, with the connection determined by context: | The conjunctive or participle form is derived from monopartite verbs simply with the suffix ''-u''. Regular bipartite verbs form the conjunctive in much the same way after joining their two stems together, but many bipartite verbs have forms acquired by suppletion. The conjunctive form is used in sentences alongside a 'main verb'. The 'main verb' carries the vast majority of the inflection and grammatical information, which is then transferred to the conjunctive. This construction expresses two connected actions, with the connection determined by context: | ||
:''Pema wen enxa-nxa | :''Pema wen utshu-u enxa-nxa'' - Pema ate some meat and died (due to the meat) (Pema meat die-CONJ eat<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
The conjunctive form is also used in constructions such as 'I love eating meat': | The conjunctive form is also used in constructions such as 'I love eating meat': | ||
:''Su | :''Su wen enxa-u miqat'' - I love eating meat (1ps meat eat-CONJ enjoy<sup>0</sup>) | ||
Although the participle lacks much of the inflection found on other verbs, it is still inflected for the role of the focus, as are other verbs: | Although the participle lacks much of the inflection found on other verbs, it is still inflected for the role of the focus, as are other verbs: | ||
:''Wen se-enxa-u miqat | :''Wen se-enxa-u su miqat'' - Meat, I love eating it (meat ABS<sup>-3</sup>-eat<sup>0</sup>-CONJ 1ps enjoy<sup>0</sup>) | ||
==== Use with auxiliaries ==== | ==== Use with auxiliaries ==== | ||
There are a few verbs which act as auxiliaries in that they add a sense of, for example, particular motion. These verbs are never found in finite form (or, if they are, have a different meaning), only in conjunctive form alongside a different verb | There are a few verbs which act as auxiliaries in that they add a sense of, for example, particular motion. These verbs are never found in finite form (or, if they are, have a different meaning), only in conjunctive form alongside a different verb. They carry identical agreement to the verb they modify: | ||
:'' | :''ush-u'' gives a sense of turning or movement away: ''Sesu-su ush-u atu-wa ut-ak'' - I would turn and go away from my sister (sister-PERSON turn<sup>0</sup>-CONJ<sup>3</sup> CONTRAFACT<sup>-1</sup>-go<sup>0</sup> ABL<sup>3</sup>-go<sup>0</sup>) | ||
:'' | :''nas-u'' is roughly equivalent to 'be able to': ''Su nas-u aq-el'' - I think I can walk (1ps can<sup>0</sup>-CONJ<sup>3</sup> walk<sup>0</sup>-DUB<sup>2</sup>) | ||
:''tuq-u'' is roughly equivalent to 'have to', 'must', 'should': ''Su tuq-u aq'' - I have to walk (1ps must<sup>0</sup>-CONJ<sup>3</sup> walk<sup>0</sup>) | |||
:''aʔ-u'' is an intensifier: ''Efan se-aʔ-u se-paʔ-enxa'' - Ivan was struck violently (Ivan ABS<sup>-3</sup>-violent<sup>0</sup>-CONJ<sup>3</sup> ABS<sup>-3</sup>-strike-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | |||
=== Subordinating suffixes === | === Subordinating suffixes === | ||
Line 115: | Line 115: | ||
The personal suffix takes the form ''-(s)u'' for male speakers and ''-(s)a'' for female speakers. Its use is ill-defined and implies, generally, motion towards the speaker: | The personal suffix takes the form ''-(s)u'' for male speakers and ''-(s)a'' for female speakers. Its use is ill-defined and implies, generally, motion towards the speaker: | ||
:''Wa-ak-u''/''Wa-ak-a'' - Come towards me | :''Wa-ak-u''/''Wa-ak-a'' - Come towards me (come<sup>0</sup>-come<sup>0</sup>-PERS<sup>3</sup>) | ||
It can also imply benefit brought to the speaker: | It can also imply benefit brought to the speaker: | ||
:''Tekutaru se-a-nxa-sa'' - He told the doctor for me | :''Tekutaru aʔ-akxa se-a-nxa-sa'' - He told the doctor for me (doctor he-ERG ABS<sup>-3</sup>-tell<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>-PERS<sup>3</sup>) | ||
Or simply imply some kind of relation to the speaker in what is being said: | Or simply imply some kind of relation to the speaker in what is being said: | ||
:''Nenqa ʔu-tashit-enxa-u'' - Nenqa read a something to me/read (a book) that I wrote | :''Nenqa ʔu-tashit-enxa-u'' - Nenqa read a something to me/read (a book) that I wrote (Nenqa GEN<sup>-1</sup>-read<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>-PERS<sup>3</sup>) | ||
== Monopartite verbs == | == Monopartite verbs == | ||
Line 133: | Line 133: | ||
|colspan="12" | <center>'''''Waspap unqatuʔutashitenxas-u Nenqakxa'''''</center> | |colspan="12" | <center>'''''Waspap unqatuʔutashitenxas-u Nenqakxa'''''</center> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| || || | | || || || || || '''agreement''' <small>(-3)</small> || '''evidentiality''' <small>(-2)</small> || '''valency''' <small>(-1)</small> ||'''stem''' <small>(0)</small> || '''aspect''' <small>(1)</small> || '''mood''' <small>(2)</small> || '''suffix''' <small>(3)</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''waspa'' || ''-ep'' || ''-ø'' || '' | | ''waspa'' || ''-ep'' || ''-ø'' || ''Nenqa'' || ''-kxa'' || ''unqa-'' || ''atu-'' || ''ʔu-'' || ''tashet'' || ''-enxa'' || ''-s'' || ''-u'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| tent || -that || -TOPIC || INESS- || | | tent || -that || -TOPIC || Nenqa || -ERG || INESS- || CONTRAFACT- || INTRANS- || read || -PERF || -SUBJ || -PERS | ||
|- | |- | ||
|colspan="12" | <center>Had Nenqa deliberately read something that relates to me/read something to me in that tent (that we can see) (and have been talking about) (but he hasn't)</center> | |colspan="12" | <center>Had Nenqa deliberately read something that relates to me/read something to me in that tent (that we can see) (and have been talking about) (but he hasn't)</center> | ||
Line 194: | Line 194: | ||
Certainty (marked by the prefix ''ø-''), used when the speaker observed the act in question or is certain that it occurred: | Certainty (marked by the prefix ''ø-''), used when the speaker observed the act in question or is certain that it occurred: | ||
: ''Sesu-ø uʔ-a se | : ''Sesu-ø uʔ-a se-ta-nxa'' - your sister saw you (sister-TOPIC 2ps-DAT ABS<sup>-3</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
In future contexts use of the null prefix is emphatic: | In future contexts use of the null prefix is emphatic: | ||
: ''Nenqa patangqa se-ta-nxa'' - I WILL see Nenqa tomorrow (nenqa | : ''Nenqa patangqa se-ta-nxa'' - I WILL see Nenqa tomorrow (nenqa tomorrow ABS<sup>-3</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
Uncertainty, marked by the prefix ''anu-'', is used for reported speech and events that may have happened: | Uncertainty, marked by the prefix ''anu-'', is used for reported speech and events that may have happened: | ||
: ''Nenqa | : ''Nenqa se-anu-ta-nxa'' - you saw Nenqa (didn't you?) (nenqa ABS<sup>-3</sup>-UNCERTAIN<sup>-2</sup>-see-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
There is a strong overlap with the dubitative here - original analyses treated this as a circumfix with the dubitative suffix but there are instances of one occurring without the other. The dubitative implies something slightly different from the ''anu-'' prefix - ''anu-'' simply confirms that the speaker was not present at the event and cannot vouch completely for what happened. The dubitative gives a degree of actual distancing from the event: | There is a strong overlap with the dubitative here - original analyses treated this as a circumfix with the dubitative suffix but there are instances of one occurring without the other. The dubitative implies something slightly different from the ''anu-'' prefix - ''anu-'' simply confirms that the speaker was not present at the event and cannot vouch completely for what happened. The dubitative gives a degree of actual distancing from the event: | ||
: ''Nenqa aʔ se-anu-ta-nxa'' - I believe that he saw Nenqa (but I wasn't actually present at the time) | : ''Nenqa aʔ se-anu-ta-nxa'' - I believe that he saw Nenqa (but I wasn't actually present at the time) (nenqa 3ps ABS<sup>-3</sup>-UNCERTAIN<sup>-2</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
: ''Nenqa | : ''Nenqa aʔ se-anu-ta-nxa-l'' - He says/people say that he saw Nenqa (but I don't know whether to believe it) (nenqa 3ps ABS<sup>-3</sup>-UNCERTAIN<sup>-2</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>-DUB-<sup>2</sup>) | ||
The final evidentiality prefix denotes hypotheticality, marked with ''atu''. This states that the event never in fact happened: | The final evidentiality prefix denotes hypotheticality, marked with ''atu''. This states that the event never in fact happened: | ||
: ''Nenqa uʔ se-atu-ta-nxa'' - you would've seen Nenqa/say you'd seen Nenqa | : ''Nenqa uʔ se-atu-ta-nxa'' - you would've seen Nenqa/say you'd seen Nenqa (nenqa 2ps ABS<sup>-3</sup>-CONTRAFACT<sup>-2</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
=== Valency === | === Valency === | ||
Line 222: | Line 222: | ||
The transitive prefix is null. In transitive verbs, this null prefix must be accompanied by a transitive patient: | The transitive prefix is null. In transitive verbs, this null prefix must be accompanied by a transitive patient: | ||
:''Sesu-sa wen enxa'' - My sister is eating meat | :''Sesu-sa wen enxa'' - My sister is eating meat (sister-PERSON meat eat<sup>0</sup>) | ||
==== Generic ==== | ==== Generic ==== | ||
Line 228: | Line 228: | ||
Transitive verbs can take the prefix ''-(ʔ)u(ʔ)-'', which is referred to variously as the 'generic' prefix, the 'monotransivity' prefix, and the 'null-patient' prefix. This makes the verb monotransitive or generic: | Transitive verbs can take the prefix ''-(ʔ)u(ʔ)-'', which is referred to variously as the 'generic' prefix, the 'monotransivity' prefix, and the 'null-patient' prefix. This makes the verb monotransitive or generic: | ||
:''Sesu-sa uʔ-enxa'' - my sister is eating (something) | :''Sesu-sa uʔ-enxa'' - my sister is eating (something) (sister-PERSON GEN<sup>-1</sup>-eat<sup>0</sup>) | ||
The verb cannot then take a patient. The sentence *''Sesu-sa wen uʔ-enxa'' is ungrammatical. | The verb cannot then take a patient. The sentence *''Sesu-sa wen uʔ-enxa'' is ungrammatical. | ||
Line 236: | Line 236: | ||
Transitive verbs can take the prefix ''(f)a(q)'', which makes them 'reflexive'. This can have reciprocal or reflexive meaning: | Transitive verbs can take the prefix ''(f)a(q)'', which makes them 'reflexive'. This can have reciprocal or reflexive meaning: | ||
:''Sesu-sa aq-enxa'' - my sister is eating herself | :''Sesu-sa aq-enxa'' - my sister is eating herself (sister-PERSON REFL<sup>-1</sup>-eat<sup>0</sup>) | ||
:'' | :''Sesu-f-a aq-enxa'' - my two sisters are eating each other (sister-DUAL-PERSON REFL<sup>-1</sup>-eat<sup>0</sup>) | ||
=== Aspect === | === Aspect === | ||
Line 248: | Line 248: | ||
The Perfective aspect implies a single action, complete and independent of any other action and is formed by (e)nxa (the /e/ assimilates to a preceding vowel and causes lenition of /t/ to /s/ and /p/ to /f/ in preceding consonants). For example: | The Perfective aspect implies a single action, complete and independent of any other action and is formed by (e)nxa (the /e/ assimilates to a preceding vowel and causes lenition of /t/ to /s/ and /p/ to /f/ in preceding consonants). For example: | ||
: ''Sesu-sa se | : ''Sesu-sa se-ta-nxa'' - I saw/see my sister at one point (sister-PERSON ABS<sup>-3</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
The perfective does not imply any kind of past tense, and can be used in the future for any distinct single action: | The perfective does not imply any kind of past tense, and can be used in the future for any distinct single action: | ||
: ''Sesu-sa patangqa se-ta-nxa'' - I will see my sister tomorrow (sister | : ''Sesu-sa patangqa se-ta-nxa'' - I will see my sister tomorrow (sister-PERSON tomorrow ABS<sup>-3</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
==== Imperfective aspect ==== | ==== Imperfective aspect ==== | ||
Line 258: | Line 258: | ||
The Imperfective aspect implies continuous or repeated action. It is formed with a null morpheme in the vast majority of verbs, although some verbs take an epenthetic ''-e'' when other suffixes are not present. | The Imperfective aspect implies continuous or repeated action. It is formed with a null morpheme in the vast majority of verbs, although some verbs take an epenthetic ''-e'' when other suffixes are not present. | ||
: ''Sesu-sa se-ta'' - I'm currently seeing my sister/I see my sister frequently (sister.TOPIC- | : ''Sesu-sa se-ta'' - I'm currently seeing my sister/I see my sister frequently (sister.TOPIC-PERSON ABS<sup>-3</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>) | ||
: ''Sesu-sa se-ta | : ''Sesu-sa pangxu-fa se-ta'' - I used to see my sister/I was seeing my sister last year (sister.TOPIC-PERSONAL last.year-TEMP ABS<sup>-3</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>) | ||
=== Mood === | === Mood === | ||
Line 270: | Line 270: | ||
The Indicative mood describes actions that definitely have happened, will happen or are happening within the speaker's knowledge. It is marked by a null morpheme (shown here with -ø but not marked in the actual written language). | The Indicative mood describes actions that definitely have happened, will happen or are happening within the speaker's knowledge. It is marked by a null morpheme (shown here with -ø but not marked in the actual written language). | ||
: ''Kangqa se-ta-nxa'' - I saw the beast | : ''Kangqa se-ta-nxa'' - I saw the beast (beast ABS<sup>-3</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
It is also used for imperatives in almost all verbs: | It is also used for imperatives in almost all verbs: | ||
: ''Bashung | : ''Bashung uʔ-kxa se-tashet-enxa!'' - Read the book! (book 2ps-ERG ABS<sup>-3</sup>-read<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
Some verbs, however, have their own distinct imperative root: | Some verbs, however, have their own distinct imperative root: | ||
: ''Bashung | : ''Bashung uʔ-kxa se-sang-anxa!'' - Look at the book! (book 2ps-ERG ABS<sup>-3</sup>-see<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>) | ||
==== Subjunctive ==== | ==== Subjunctive ==== | ||
Line 284: | Line 284: | ||
The Subjunctive or Modal mood describes actions that may or may not have happened and that the speaker feels strongly about. It is marked by a suffixed ''-(a)s'': | The Subjunctive or Modal mood describes actions that may or may not have happened and that the speaker feels strongly about. It is marked by a suffixed ''-(a)s'': | ||
: ''As-aʔ | : ''As-aʔ se-utshu-s'' - I hope he's dying somewhere (FOCUS-3ps ABS<sup>-3</sup>-die<sup>0</sup>-SUBJ<sup>2</sup>) | ||
It is also used for 'if I were' sentences: | It is also used for 'if I were' sentences: | ||
: ''A-su | : ''A-su se-pesh-as'' - if I were a rich man (FOCUS-1ps ABS<sup>-3</sup>-rich<sup>0</sup>-SUBJ<sup>2</sup>) | ||
==== Dubitative ==== | ==== Dubitative ==== | ||
Line 294: | Line 294: | ||
The Dubitative mood describes actions devoid of emotional content that the speaker wishes to distance themselves from - primarily reported speech. It is also used for open questions. It is formed with the suffix ''-l'': | The Dubitative mood describes actions devoid of emotional content that the speaker wishes to distance themselves from - primarily reported speech. It is also used for open questions. It is formed with the suffix ''-l'': | ||
: ''As-aʔ se- | : ''As-aʔ se-anu-pesh-al'' - (FOCUS-3ps ABS<sup>-3</sup>-UNCERT<sup>-2</sup>-rich<sup>0</sup>-DUB<sup>2</sup>) - He's supposedly rich | ||
==== Interrogative ==== | ==== Interrogative ==== | ||
Line 300: | Line 300: | ||
The Interrogative is used to ask yes or no questions. It is formed with the suffix ''-(e)f'': | The Interrogative is used to ask yes or no questions. It is formed with the suffix ''-(e)f'': | ||
: ''As-uʔ wes-enxa-f?'' - Will you eat? (2ps-TOPIC eat-PERF-INTER) | : ''As-uʔ u-wes-enxa-f?'' - Will you eat? (2ps-TOPIC GEN<sup>-1</sup>-eat<sup>0</sup>-PERF<sup>1</sup>-INTER<sup>2</sup>) | ||
== Bipartite verbs == | == Bipartite verbs == | ||
Line 325: | Line 325: | ||
: ''A-su anu-tas-tas-el ta-ma'' - (I think that) he's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC NONCERT<sup>-1</sup>-look<sup>0</sup>-IMPERF<sup>1</sup>-DUB<sup>2</sup> LOC<sup>3</sup>-look<sup>0</sup>) | : ''A-su anu-tas-tas-el ta-ma'' - (I think that) he's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC NONCERT<sup>-1</sup>-look<sup>0</sup>-IMPERF<sup>1</sup>-DUB<sup>2</sup> LOC<sup>3</sup>-look<sup>0</sup>) | ||
: ''A-su tas-tas-el ta-ma'' - (I am certain that) he's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC CERT<sup>-1</sup>-look<sup>0</sup>~IMPERF<sup>1</sup> LAT<sup>3</sup>-look) | : ''A-su tas-tas-el ta-ma'' - (I am certain that) he's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC CERT<sup>-1</sup>-look<sup>0</sup>~IMPERF<sup>1</sup> LAT<sup>3</sup>-look<sup>0</sup>) | ||
=== First stem === | === First stem === |
Revision as of 17:22, 21 November 2010
Verbs in Tsakxa are comparatively heavily inflected, conjugating by aspect, mood and voice. There are two classes of verbs, the monopartite verbs (which have a single stem and are conjugated regularly) and the bipartite verbs (which have a bipartite stem and whose conjugation is far more complex and irregular).
Verbal roots
Verbs may either be active or stative. Most stative verbs correspond to adjectives in English and are used similarly, potentially with adjectival prefixes:
- Mama pesh - a rich man - Mama anu-pesh - a man who is said to be rich - Mama atu-pesh-as - if the man had been rich
Active verbs may also be used as adjectives, in which case they correspond to present participles or relative clauses:
- Mama ʔuwes - a man who eats
Bipartite verbs have two stems. These, however, may not be used as adjectives. Many bipartite verbs have monopartite, intransitive counterparts which are used for this purpose:
- Mama aq - a man who walks, the walking man - as-aq - to walk somewhere
Commonalities
Polarity
Negativity is marked with the particle pa, which is placed in a variety of places depending on emphasis and personal taste. Reduplication to apa creates an emphatic 'no' or 'never':
- Wen apa su wes - I never eat meat (meat never 1ps eat0)
An emphatic declarative is also possible with the particle ʔu which works in much the same way as pa:
- Wen ʔu su wes - I always eat meat (meat DECL.EMPH 1ps eat0)
Voice/agreement
Tsakxa has what is termed by Dawkins as an 'information saliency voice system'. The verb agrees with the 'main argument' or 'focus', which is usually the topic but can also introduce new information in some contexts. When the focus is the agent, the prefix is null:
- Kangqa su ta-nxa - as for the beast, it saw me (beast 1ps see0-PERF1)
When the focus is the patient, the prefix is a se-
- Wen se-wes - The meat is eaten (meat ABS-3-eat0)
When the focus is an adverbial argument, it takes no case marking itself, but the prefix mimics the case marking (before allomorphy):
- Waspa nqe-kaq-enxa - We sat down in the tent (tent INESS-3-sit0-PERF1
- Tenqa umut-anxa a-seweq - This gift is for Tenqa (Tenqa gift-this DAT-3-intended0)
Causativity
Causatives are formed simply by adding an ergative argument and demoting any existing ergative arguments to absolutives:
- Pema Nunu-kxa se-utshu-nxa - Pema was made to commit suicide/was made to die by Nunu (Pema Nunu-ERG ABS-3-die0-PERF1)
Suffix slot
The suffix slot is the final slot in the verbal complex. All of the suffixes that attach here are clitics which may also attach to noun phrases and have various different purposes. Only one suffix may be placed in the slot, although in older texts it appears that these clitics could be stacked.
Conjunctive form
The conjunctive or participle form is derived from monopartite verbs simply with the suffix -u. Regular bipartite verbs form the conjunctive in much the same way after joining their two stems together, but many bipartite verbs have forms acquired by suppletion. The conjunctive form is used in sentences alongside a 'main verb'. The 'main verb' carries the vast majority of the inflection and grammatical information, which is then transferred to the conjunctive. This construction expresses two connected actions, with the connection determined by context:
- Pema wen utshu-u enxa-nxa - Pema ate some meat and died (due to the meat) (Pema meat die-CONJ eat0-PERF1)
The conjunctive form is also used in constructions such as 'I love eating meat':
- Su wen enxa-u miqat - I love eating meat (1ps meat eat-CONJ enjoy0)
Although the participle lacks much of the inflection found on other verbs, it is still inflected for the role of the focus, as are other verbs:
- Wen se-enxa-u su miqat - Meat, I love eating it (meat ABS-3-eat0-CONJ 1ps enjoy0)
Use with auxiliaries
There are a few verbs which act as auxiliaries in that they add a sense of, for example, particular motion. These verbs are never found in finite form (or, if they are, have a different meaning), only in conjunctive form alongside a different verb. They carry identical agreement to the verb they modify:
- ush-u gives a sense of turning or movement away: Sesu-su ush-u atu-wa ut-ak - I would turn and go away from my sister (sister-PERSON turn0-CONJ3 CONTRAFACT-1-go0 ABL3-go0)
- nas-u is roughly equivalent to 'be able to': Su nas-u aq-el - I think I can walk (1ps can0-CONJ3 walk0-DUB2)
- tuq-u is roughly equivalent to 'have to', 'must', 'should': Su tuq-u aq - I have to walk (1ps must0-CONJ3 walk0)
- aʔ-u is an intensifier: Efan se-aʔ-u se-paʔ-enxa - Ivan was struck violently (Ivan ABS-3-violent0-CONJ3 ABS-3-strike-PERF1)
Subordinating suffixes
Adjectival clauses
Adjectival clauses are formed by the incorporation of the verb within the noun phrase as an adjective. In this case, any case clitic may be placed within the suffix slot:
- Mama ʔu-wes-akxa - The man that eats/is eating... (person INTRANS-1-eat0-ERG3)
- Mama su se-ta-nxa-kxa - The man that I saw... (person 1ps ABS-3-see0-PERF1-ERG3)
Adverbial clauses
Subordination of adverbial clauses is accomplished using the adverbial case suffixes. Note that the arguments of the adverbial verb form must precede it directly. For example:
- A-su a-su-m se-ngqu-nxa-te su-qa wa-ak - I went when I (myself) was told (FOCUS-1ps FOCUS-1ps-REFL ABS-3-command0-PERF1-TEMP3 go0-go0
Note that the entire adverbial phrase can be placed in topical position:
- A-su Nunu-kxa se-ngqu-nxa wa su-kxa et-ak - I went when I was told to by Nunu (FOCUS-1ps Nunu-ERG ABS-3-command0-PERF1 go0 1ps-ERG TEMP3-go0)
Nominal clauses
Subordination of nominal clauses is accomplished using the ergative and absolutive (null) suffixes. Note that the verb's arguments must precede it directly.
- A-su as-uʔ aʔ yem se-lup - I know what you want (TOPIC-1ps TOPIC-2ps 3ps want0 ABS-3-know.something)
- As-aʔ as-aʔ-em aʔ yem-ekxa se-tusha-nxa - He's going to be killed by what he wants (TOPIC-3ps TOPIC-3ps-REFL 3ps want0-ERG3 ABS-3-kill0-PERF1)
Like adverbial clauses, they may be fronted:
- As-uʔ aʔ yem a-su se-lup - I know what you want (TOPIC-2ps 3ps want 3ps ABS-3-know.something0)
Personal suffix
The personal suffix takes the form -(s)u for male speakers and -(s)a for female speakers. Its use is ill-defined and implies, generally, motion towards the speaker:
- Wa-ak-u/Wa-ak-a - Come towards me (come0-come0-PERS3)
It can also imply benefit brought to the speaker:
- Tekutaru aʔ-akxa se-a-nxa-sa - He told the doctor for me (doctor he-ERG ABS-3-tell0-PERF1-PERS3)
Or simply imply some kind of relation to the speaker in what is being said:
- Nenqa ʔu-tashit-enxa-u - Nenqa read a something to me/read (a book) that I wrote (Nenqa GEN-1-read0-PERF1-PERS3)
Monopartite verbs
Monopartite verbs are by far the more common type of verb in Tsakxa. They have a single stem and can take up to three prefixes and two suffixes (not including the personal clitic, whose uses are discussed above):
Waspap unqatuʔutashitenxas-u Nenqakxa agreement (-3) evidentiality (-2) valency (-1) stem (0) aspect (1) mood (2) suffix (3) waspa -ep -ø Nenqa -kxa unqa- atu- ʔu- tashet -enxa -s -u tent -that -TOPIC Nenqa -ERG INESS- CONTRAFACT- INTRANS- read -PERF -SUBJ -PERS Had Nenqa deliberately read something that relates to me/read something to me in that tent (that we can see) (and have been talking about) (but he hasn't)
Agreement
All verbs agree with the focussed element, expressing the grammatical relationship of the element with the rest of the sentence through a prefix which is mostly identical (before allomorphy) to or a contracted version of the standard case suffix that would otherwise be attached to the noun in a non-focussed context.This is the first prefix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript -3.
Case | Prefix | Usage |
---|---|---|
Ergative (-kxa) | ø- | Shows the volitive agent |
Absolutive (-ø) | se- | Shows the patient or non-volitive agent |
Dative (-(q)a) | a- | Shows a genitive, beneficiary or indirect object |
Comitative/locative (-(t)a) | ta- | Shows a locative with place names ('in', 'to'), 'and', 'with', 'by', instrumental uses: 'using' |
Inessive (-(u)nqa) | unq(a)- | Inside (a hollow object, building etc), into, in |
Ablative (-ut) | u(t)- | Out of, outside, by, near, away from |
Subessive (-fa) | f- | Under, down into, beneath |
Adessive (-atqe) | tq(a)- | On, above, up into, up onto |
Temporal (-te) | (e)t- | At (time), during, for (an amount of time) |
Evidentiality
All verbs carry inflection for evidentiality. This is the second prefix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript -2. There are three degrees of evidentiality:
Certainty (marked by the prefix ø-), used when the speaker observed the act in question or is certain that it occurred:
- Sesu-ø uʔ-a se-ta-nxa - your sister saw you (sister-TOPIC 2ps-DAT ABS-3-see0-PERF1)
In future contexts use of the null prefix is emphatic:
- Nenqa patangqa se-ta-nxa - I WILL see Nenqa tomorrow (nenqa tomorrow ABS-3-see0-PERF1)
Uncertainty, marked by the prefix anu-, is used for reported speech and events that may have happened:
- Nenqa se-anu-ta-nxa - you saw Nenqa (didn't you?) (nenqa ABS-3-UNCERTAIN-2-see-PERF1)
There is a strong overlap with the dubitative here - original analyses treated this as a circumfix with the dubitative suffix but there are instances of one occurring without the other. The dubitative implies something slightly different from the anu- prefix - anu- simply confirms that the speaker was not present at the event and cannot vouch completely for what happened. The dubitative gives a degree of actual distancing from the event:
- Nenqa aʔ se-anu-ta-nxa - I believe that he saw Nenqa (but I wasn't actually present at the time) (nenqa 3ps ABS-3-UNCERTAIN-2-see0-PERF1)
- Nenqa aʔ se-anu-ta-nxa-l - He says/people say that he saw Nenqa (but I don't know whether to believe it) (nenqa 3ps ABS-3-UNCERTAIN-2-see0-PERF1-DUB-2)
The final evidentiality prefix denotes hypotheticality, marked with atu. This states that the event never in fact happened:
- Nenqa uʔ se-atu-ta-nxa - you would've seen Nenqa/say you'd seen Nenqa (nenqa 2ps ABS-3-CONTRAFACT-2-see0-PERF1)
Valency
Transitive verbs are distinguished by whether they can take this prefix or not. This is the third and final prefix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript -1. There are three valency prefixes which may be applied to these verbs:
Transitive
The transitive prefix is null. In transitive verbs, this null prefix must be accompanied by a transitive patient:
- Sesu-sa wen enxa - My sister is eating meat (sister-PERSON meat eat0)
Generic
Transitive verbs can take the prefix -(ʔ)u(ʔ)-, which is referred to variously as the 'generic' prefix, the 'monotransivity' prefix, and the 'null-patient' prefix. This makes the verb monotransitive or generic:
- Sesu-sa uʔ-enxa - my sister is eating (something) (sister-PERSON GEN-1-eat0)
The verb cannot then take a patient. The sentence *Sesu-sa wen uʔ-enxa is ungrammatical.
Reflexive
Transitive verbs can take the prefix (f)a(q), which makes them 'reflexive'. This can have reciprocal or reflexive meaning:
- Sesu-sa aq-enxa - my sister is eating herself (sister-PERSON REFL-1-eat0)
- Sesu-f-a aq-enxa - my two sisters are eating each other (sister-DUAL-PERSON REFL-1-eat0)
Aspect
All verbs carry inflection for aspect (perfective or imperfective). This is the first suffix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript 1. In monopartite verbs, this is accomplished by the addition of a suffix.
Perfective aspect
The Perfective aspect implies a single action, complete and independent of any other action and is formed by (e)nxa (the /e/ assimilates to a preceding vowel and causes lenition of /t/ to /s/ and /p/ to /f/ in preceding consonants). For example:
- Sesu-sa se-ta-nxa - I saw/see my sister at one point (sister-PERSON ABS-3-see0-PERF1)
The perfective does not imply any kind of past tense, and can be used in the future for any distinct single action:
- Sesu-sa patangqa se-ta-nxa - I will see my sister tomorrow (sister-PERSON tomorrow ABS-3-see0-PERF1)
Imperfective aspect
The Imperfective aspect implies continuous or repeated action. It is formed with a null morpheme in the vast majority of verbs, although some verbs take an epenthetic -e when other suffixes are not present.
- Sesu-sa se-ta - I'm currently seeing my sister/I see my sister frequently (sister.TOPIC-PERSON ABS-3-see0)
- Sesu-sa pangxu-fa se-ta - I used to see my sister/I was seeing my sister last year (sister.TOPIC-PERSONAL last.year-TEMP ABS-3-see0)
Mood
All verbs also carry inflection for mood. This is the second suffix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript 2. There are four moods distinguished in Tsakxa:
Indicative
The Indicative mood describes actions that definitely have happened, will happen or are happening within the speaker's knowledge. It is marked by a null morpheme (shown here with -ø but not marked in the actual written language).
- Kangqa se-ta-nxa - I saw the beast (beast ABS-3-see0-PERF1)
It is also used for imperatives in almost all verbs:
- Bashung uʔ-kxa se-tashet-enxa! - Read the book! (book 2ps-ERG ABS-3-read0-PERF1)
Some verbs, however, have their own distinct imperative root:
- Bashung uʔ-kxa se-sang-anxa! - Look at the book! (book 2ps-ERG ABS-3-see0-PERF1)
Subjunctive
The Subjunctive or Modal mood describes actions that may or may not have happened and that the speaker feels strongly about. It is marked by a suffixed -(a)s:
- As-aʔ se-utshu-s - I hope he's dying somewhere (FOCUS-3ps ABS-3-die0-SUBJ2)
It is also used for 'if I were' sentences:
- A-su se-pesh-as - if I were a rich man (FOCUS-1ps ABS-3-rich0-SUBJ2)
Dubitative
The Dubitative mood describes actions devoid of emotional content that the speaker wishes to distance themselves from - primarily reported speech. It is also used for open questions. It is formed with the suffix -l:
- As-aʔ se-anu-pesh-al - (FOCUS-3ps ABS-3-UNCERT-2-rich0-DUB2) - He's supposedly rich
Interrogative
The Interrogative is used to ask yes or no questions. It is formed with the suffix -(e)f:
- As-uʔ u-wes-enxa-f? - Will you eat? (2ps-TOPIC GEN-1-eat0-PERF1-INTER2)
Bipartite verbs
Bipartite verbs have twin stems and are mostly verbs of motion or auxiliaries. It is believed that, originally, all Tsakxa verbs were bipartite, and exactly which verbs fall under this classification varies by dialect (e.g. West Mountain Tsakxa wa-ak, Valley Tsakxa wak, 'go'). Bipartite verbs incorporate direct objects and locatives and take some inflection on each stem. They may take up to five affixes. For example:
Petukal anuwawa Efanakxa nak-u evidentiality (-1) first stem (0) aspect (1) mood (2) agreement (3) second stem (0) suffix (+1) Petukal -ø atu- wa -wa -s Efan -akxa na- ak -u Saint Petersburg -FOCUS CONTFACT- go ~IMPERF -SUBJ Ivan -ERG LAT- go =PERS Were Ivan on his way to Saint Petersburg (a place we've just been discussing) (where I live or am presently) (but he isn't)
Evidentiality
Evidentiality (glossed with a superscript -1) is formed using exactly the same prefixes as in monopartite verbs. The prefixes attach to the first stem:
- A-su anu-tas-tas-el ta-ma - (I think that) he's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC NONCERT-1-look0-IMPERF1-DUB2 LOC3-look0)
- A-su tas-tas-el ta-ma - (I am certain that) he's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC CERT-1-look0~IMPERF1 LAT3-look0)
First stem
The first stem (glossed with a superscript 0) is the second element of the verbal complex:
- A-su anu-tas-tas ta-ma - He's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC NONCERT-1-look0~IMPERF1 LOC3-look0)
Aspect
In bipartite verbs, the perfect is formed by the bare stem, whilst the imperfect is formed by reduplication of the second syllable of the first part of the stem. Aspect is glossed with a superscript 1.
- Man tas-ø-el ta-ma? - What did you look at? (what-TOPIC look0~PERF1-DUB2 LOC3-look0)
- Man tas-tas-el ta-ma? - What are you looking at? (what-TOPIC look0-IMPERF1-DUB2 LOC3-look0)
Mood
Mood (glossed with a superscript 2) is formed using exactly the same suffixes as monopartite verbs. In bipartite verbs the suffixes attach to the first stem:
- Man-ø tas-tas-el ta-ma? - What are you looking at? (what-TOPIC look0-IMPERF1-DUB2 LOC3-look0)
- As-uʔ tas-tas-as ta-ma - If I were looking at you (2ps-TOPIC look-IMPERF1-SUBJ2 LOC3-look0)
Incorporation of arguments
All arguments other than the dominant, or 'topical', argument are placed within the two stems.
- Mosaqan wa-f uʔ-akxa na-ak? - Did you go to Moscow? (Moscow-TOPIC go0-INTER2 2ps-ERG LAT3-go0)
Not only objects, but clauses can be incorporated:
- As-aʔ, te-f nxa-nxa aʔ-kxa sa? - Does he think that I cooked it? (3ps think0-INTER2 cook-PERF1 1ps-ERG think0)
Agreement
Agreement is with the topic or focus, as in monopartite verbs. However, in bipartite verbs the agreement prefix (glossed with a 3) attaches to the second stem (the only one of the 'true affixes' to do so):
- Petukal as-as-ef ta-aq? - Are you walking to Saint Petersburg? (Saint.Petersburg walk0~IMPERF1-INTER2LAT3-walk0)
Second stem
The second stem (glossed with a superscript 0) is the second-to-last element of the verbal complex, following the agreement prefix and preceding the personal suffix:
- A-su anu-tas-tas-el ta-ma - (I think that) he's looking at me (2ps-TOPIC NONCERT-1-look0-IMPERF1-DUB2 LOC3-look0)