User:Masako/sandbox

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Nouns and adjectives

Adjectives indicating quantities precede the noun; adjectives indicating qualities follow it. But bon "good" and mal "bad" usually precede the noun.

To make a noun plural, add -s to the end. If the noun already ends in a consonant, add -es.

• -s and -es do not affect the word's stress: gáto "cat", gátos "cats"; óm "man", ómes "men".
• Adjectives do not change when they are plural. But when an adjective is used in place of a noun, it can be pluralized: la seguentes "the following (ones)".

In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, use the adjectives mas and fema: un can mas "a male dog", un can fema "a female dog".

• But a few names for members of the family mark females with -a and males with -o:
  • ava, avo = grandmother, grandfather
  • fia, fio = girl, boy
  • neta, neto = granddaughter, grandson
  • sobrina, sobrino = niece, nephew
  • sposa, sposo = wife, husband
  • tia, tio = aunt, uncle
• There are also a few pairs that use different words for the two sexes:
  • dama, cavalor = dame, knight
  • diva, dio = goddess, god
  • madre, padre = mother, father
  • rea, re = queen, king
  • seniora, senior = lady, Mrs, gentleman, Mr
  • sore, frate = sister, brother
• The suffix -esa forms the names of the female versions of a few historical social roles:
  • abade > abadesa = abbot > abbess
  • baron > baronesa = baron > baroness
  • conte > contesa = count > countess
  • duxe > duxesa = duke > duchess
  • marci > marcesa = marquess > marchioness
  • prinse > prinsesa = prince > princess

Articles

There are two articles:

• la, the definite article
• un, the indefinite article

They go before a noun to show whether it represents something already known to the listener, or something new.

La is a neutral equivalent of esta "this" and acel "that". It's used with both singular and plural nouns, in cases such as the following:

• The thing has already been mentioned:
  • Me ia compra un casa. La casa es peti. "I've bought a house. The house is small."
• The listener can easily guess that the thing exists:
  • Me ia compra un casa. La cosina es grande. "I've bought a house. The kitchen is large."
• The listener can perceive the thing for themselves:
  • La musica es multe bela, no? "The music's lovely, isn't it?"
• The thing is well known to everyone:
  • La luna es multe distante de la tera. "The moon is a long way from the earth."
• The thing is described in the sentence itself:
  • El ia perde la numeros telefonal de se amis. "She's lost the phone numbers of her friends."

Un can be used in other cases, if the noun is countable but singular. It indicates something new:

• Me vole leje un libro. "I want to read a book."

If the noun is plural, don't use un (because un also means "one"). Instead, say:

• Me va leje alga libros. "I'm going to read some books."

Or simply:

• Me va leje libros. "I'm going to read books."

If the noun is uncountable, alga can be used to indicate an unspecified quantity. After a verb, de can be used:

• Alga polvo cade de la sofito. "Some dust fell from the ceiling."
• Me nesesa bevi de cafe. "I need to drink some coffee."

(De is also used as a preposition after nouns of quantity — un tas de cafe "a cup of coffee", acel peso de torta "that piece of cake".)

If the quantity is unimportant, and the thing is being mentioned in a general way, the article can be omitted — or la can be used if an article seems necessary for clarity:

• Me ama cafe. "I love coffee."
• Me ama la cafe. "I love coffee."

La is used before abstract nouns, and names of fields of knowledge, and nouns representing any member of a class:

• La felisia importa plu ce la ricia. "Happiness is more important than wealth."
• Me no comprende la matematica. "I don't understand mathematics."
• La arpa es un strumento musical. "The harp is a musical instrument." = Arpos es strumentos musical. "Harps are musical instruments."

But after a preposition, la and un can often be omitted if the meaning remains clear:

• La comandante de polis. "The chief of police."
• Nos vade a scola. "We're going to school."
• Acel es un problem sin solve en matematica. "That's an unsolved problem in mathematics."
• Un article pare nesesada per claria. "An article seems necessary for clarity."

Don't use an article before a proper noun or before an infinitive:

• Maria e Pedro va se sposi en la estate. "Maria and Pedro will be getting married in the summer."
• Sciar es perilos. "Skiing is dangerous."

Special adjectives

The following adjectives precede their noun. With the exception of multe and poca, they replace any article that would have been used:

• cual? = which?
  • cual instruor?, cual fenetras? = which teacher?, which windows?
  • With no noun: cual?, cuales? = which?, which one?, which ones?
  • ci? (= cual person?) = who?, which person?
  • ce? (= cual cosa?) = what?, which thing?

• esta = this
  • esta casa, esta libros = this house, these books
  • With no noun: esta, estas = this, this one, these, these ones

• acel = that
  • acel fio, acel fias = that boy, those girls
  • With no noun: acel, aceles = that, that one, those, those ones

• cualce = any (at all, it doesn't matter which)
  • cualce carta, cualce contenadores = any card, any containers
  • With no noun: cualce, cualces = any, any one, any ones
  • cualcun (= cualce person) = any person, anyone, anybody

• alga = some, a few (an unspecified identity or quantity, singular; an unspecified number, plural)
  • alga libro, alga pan = some book (or other), some bread
  • alga libros = some books
  • With no noun: alga = some, an unspecified one, an unspecified quantity
  • With no noun: algas = some, an unspecified number
  • algun (= alga person) = some person, someone, somebody

• cada = each, every (individually, always singular)
  • cada parola = every word
  • With no noun: cada = each, each one
  • cadun (= cada person) = each person, everyone, everybody

• tota = all (considered together, plural with countable nouns, singular with uncountable nouns)
  • tota linguas = all languages
  • tota tempo = all time, the whole of time
  • la lingua total = the whole of the language
  • With no noun: tota = all, everyone, everything, the whole lot

• ambos = both (always plural)
  • ambos portas = both doors
  • With no noun: ambos = both (of them), ambos de tu e me = both you and me (= e tu e me)

• no = no (a zero quantity, singular or plural)
  • no dole = no pain
  • no arbores = no trees
  • no cannot be used without a noun, but zero can: Me ia xerca solves, ma trova zero. "I looked for solutions, but found none / didn't find any."
  • nun (= no person) = no one, nobody

• multe = many, much
  • multe anios = many years
  • la multe anios = the many years
  • multe pan = much bread, a lot of bread, a large amount of bread
  • la multe pan = the large amount of bread
  • With no noun: multe = much, many

• poca = few (not many), a little (not much)
  • poca pajes = few pages
  • se poca poseses = her few possessions
  • With no noun: poca = few, little
  • "A few" meaning "some" is translated by alga.

• basta = enough
  • basta ris = enough rice
  • basta sapatos = enough shoes
  • With no noun: basta = enough

There are a few other adjectives that precede their noun:

• mesma = same
  • la mesma cosa, la mesma cosas = the same thing, the same things
  • With no noun: la mesma, la mesmas = the same, the same one, the same ones
  • Mesma can also follow a noun or pronoun, but then it means "-self": La presidente mesma ia entra. "The president himself walked in."

• otra = other
  • un otra cosa, otra cosas = another thing, something else, other things
  • la otra cosa, la otra cosas = the other things, the other thing
  • With no noun: un otra, otras, la otra, la otras = another, others, the other, the others

• tal = such
  • tal cosas = such things
  • tal person = such a person

• serta = certain, particular (known but left unmentioned)
  • un serta autor = a certain author
  • a serta dias = on certain days
  • With no noun: un serta, sertas = a certain one, certain ones
  • Serta can also follow a noun, but then it means "certain" in the sense of "sure".

• sola = only, sole (alone of its kind)
  • la sola responde = the only answer
  • un sola person = only one person
  • Sola can also follow the noun, but then it means "solitary" or "lonely".

These adjectives are often followed by:

• cosa = thing
• person = person
• ora = time (of day)
  • ves = time (an occasion)
• parte = place (region)
  • loca = place (location), -where
• cuantia = quantity, amount
• modo = manner, way, -how
• caso = case, situation, circumstance

Pronouns

• me -- I, me, my
• tu -- you, your (singular)
• el -- he, him, she, her, it
• nos -- we, us, our
• vos -- you, your (plural)
• los -- they, them

Me, tu, nos, and vos are also used as possessives, and are placed before the noun possessed. Possession may also be indicated with the phrase de me, etc. My house can be me casa or la casa de me.

Se is the possessive form for the third person, both singular and plural, as well as the reflexive:

• El ia colpe se, he hit himself
• El ia colpe se peto, he hit his chest.
• Se capeles es brun, her hair is brown.

Possessives are always adjectives. Mine, yours, his, etc. are expressed by me, tu, se, etc. followed by a noun, e.g.

• me cosas, tu juetas, etc.

Note that there are no masculine, feminine, or neuter forms of the third person. If gender is important, use phrases such as la om..., la fema..., la fia..., la fio.... There is a special form of demonstrative that is used only for things, especially when it is important to distinguish them from persons in a sentence:

• esa -- it, this, that
• esas -- they, them, these, those

There are no distinctions of impolite/polite or formal/informal of you singular as there are in many of LFN's source languages.

On is the general indefinite pronoun, similar to "man" in German or "on" in French.

Who, What, Where, When, etc.

An interrogative pronoun is used to form questions:

• Who is that man? Ci es acel om?

A relative pronoun is used to introduce a relative clause (see below):

• He is the man who saw the accident. El es la om ci ia vide la acaso.

Interrogatives and relatives in LFN are identical...

• what/that -- ce
• who -- ci
• which (of several) -- cual
• whose -- de ci
• how -- como
• how much/how many -- cuanto
• when -- cuando
• where -- do
• why -- per ce

"Why?" has two posable responses:

• because -- car
• so that -- afince

Como, cuanto, cuando, do, e per ce when used as interrogatives, are essentially adverbs, and can come first in the sentence or right after the verb.

• How is he/she? -- Como el es? El es como?

Questions

A question can include an interrogative or interrogative phrase such as who, what, or why, or may be indicated by rising intonation alone. One may also express questions by beginning the sentence with the phrase Esce...? or by adding no? (no) or si? (yes) to the end of the sentence, after a comma:

• Esce tu parla Deutx?
• Tu parla Italian, si?

In writing, questions always end with a final question mark (?).

• Tu parla Italian?

Verbs

The present tense is indicated by the basic form.

• El canta, he or she sings...

ia indicates the past tense.¹

• El ia canta, he or she sang...

va indicates the future tense.²

• El va canta, he or she will sing....

The tense may be left out if it is clearly indicated by another word in the same sentence, or when telling a story (the "historical" tense):

• El canta doman, he sings (will sing) tomorrow.

To negate a verb, place no before the verb -- and before the tense marker if there is one:

• El no ia canta ier, el no canta oji, e el no va canta doman.

The Conditional

Conditional clauses are those involving if or if... then. The conditional nature of the action can be understood directly from the inclusion of si or si... donce. It can also be expressed with the auxiliary verbs pote or vole. Finally, it can be directly expressed by placing the particle ta before the verb.

• Si me ia ave moneta, donce me dona alga a tu.
• Si me ave moneta, donce me va dona alga a tu.
• Si me ave moneta, me dona alga a tu.
• Si me ave moneta, me pote dona alga a tu.
• Si me ave moneta, me vole dona alga a tu.
• Si me ta ave moneta, donce me ta dona alga a tu.

Ta³ indicates any action which is not real or factual, and so can be used to express situations that other languages express with conditional and subjunctive tenses. It should not be used when the action is real, normal, factual, or probable:

• Si tu no ama un bebe, el va cria.
• Si no pluve, nos va vade a la plaia.

³ from Haitian creole

The Subjunctive

The basic way to express the subjunctive is to use the regular verb in whatever tense you need. The unreal nature is communicated sufficiently by the words doubt, wish, etc. One can also suggest the subjunctive with pote and vole; Pote and ia pote (can/could) actually mean "be able to...," and vole and ia vole (will/would) mean "intend to...."

• El vole ce el pote fa esta. -- He wishes he could do it.
• Me duta ce el vole fa esta -- I doubt he would do it.

Ta (roughly translated as "would," "could," or "should") can also be used to mark the subjunctive, if desired:

• El vole ce el ta fa esta.
• Me duta ce el ta fa esta.

Ta may also be used to simply indicate the will, desire, or belief of the speaker:

• Tu renia ta veni. -- Thy kingdom come.
• Nos ta vade. -- Let's go.

Passive, Continuative, and Perfect

The simplest way to indicate the passive is to use a word like on, algun, or los:

• Algun come el -- someone ate it
• Los come el -- they ate it.

One can also indicate the passive by using es followed by the passive participle (-da):

• El ia es comeda -- it was eaten.

If you wish to include the original subject, use par:

• El ia es comeda par me -- it was eaten by me (I ate it).

Another form of passive is constructed with deveni (become):

• El deveni conoseda -- He became known.

There are several ways to indicate the continuing sense:

• Me continua come -- I continue to eat
• Me come tota dia -- I eat all day.

One may also indicate a continuing action by using es followed by the active participle (-nte):

• Me es comente -- I am (in the process of) eating.

There is no perfect-imperfect distinction. The nuances of these can be suggested, if necessary, by adverbs. For example...

Ja (already) may be used to suggest the perfect:

• Me come ja -- I have eaten.
• Me ia come ja -- I had eaten.
• Me ia come ante aora -- I did eat before now.
• Me ia fini come -- I finished eating.

In a similar manner, one can indicate a "proximate future":

• Me come pronto -- I am about to eat.
• Me comensa come -- I begin to eat.
• Me (va) come pos aora -- I (will) eat after now.
• Me (va) come plu tarde -- I (will) eat later.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs may be used without change as transitive verbs meaning, "make or cause to...." If one needs to be clear as to which meaning is intended, the intransitive use of such a verb may be preceded or followed by the reflexive form of the pronoun (me, tu, se, nos, vos, se). Likewise, the transitive use may be made explicit with the auxiliary verb fa (to make).

• El senta = El senta se... He/she sits ("he/she sits him/herself")
• Me umidi la sala = Me fa umidi la sala... I humidify the room ("I make the room humidify")

Verbs without subjects

Commands and requests may be formed as verb-object, with the subject understood:

• Para! = Tu para! Stop!

To indicate the existence of something, use Es .... To indicate the nonexistence of something, use No es ....

• Es un serpente en la rua. - There is a snake in the road.
• No es pexes en esta lago. - There aren't fish in this lake.
• Es multe persones asi oji. - There are many people here today.

So-called zero-place verbs are used without subject or object:

• Pluve = it is raining.
• Ia pluve = it was raining.
• Neva = it is snowing.
• Es bon = it is good.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs (often called helper verbs) are followed by the simple form of the verb, but without a word like "to" in front of the verb. The infinitive (-r) may be used after auxiliary verbs, if the speaker or writer prefers.

Vole (want to, intend to...) can be followed by a clause:

• Me vole dansa; me vole ce la fias dansa

Like vole are the following:

• need to, must... -- nesesa
• know (how) to... -- sabe
• expect to... -- espeta
• hope to... -- espera
• fear to... -- teme
• prefer to... -- preferi

Fa (make, cause to...) is unusual in that it can change an intransitive verb into a transitive one:

• Me fa dansa la fias (= Me fa ce la fias dansa)

Vade (go...) cannot be followed by a clause:

• Me vade dansa

Like vade are the following:

• come... -- veni
• should, must... -- debe
• can, could, am able to... -- pote
• hesitate to... -- esita
• dare to... -- osa
• threaten to... -- menasa
• pretend to... -- finge
• appear to... -- aperi
• try to... -- atenta
• start to... -- comensa
• continue to... -- continua
• finish -- fini

In cases of potential confusion, when an auxiliary verb could also be understood as a noun, it should be treated as an auxiliary verb first:

• Me (vole es) forte > Me vole es forte (I will be strong)
• (Me vole) es forte > Me vole, el es forte... (My will, it is strong); Me ave un vole forte.

Notice that el can be used as a verbal marker, i.e. it indicates that the following word is a verb.

Verbs Used as Nouns

The most common form of the verbal noun is the present verb used as is, to mean a specific instance of an act, the process of an act, or the immediate consequences of an act. Dansa, to dance, becomes la dansa, the dance; condui, to conduct (oneself), becomes la condui, the conduct; corti, to cut, becomes la corti, the cut.... Note that this form requires an article (la or un) or plural (-s) or another indicator such as esta or a preposition. It replaces many other forms, such as those ending in -tion, -ture, or -ment in English.

To make an abstract noun (the infinitive) out of a verb, add -r. Note that there is no word like "to" before the infinitive. Note also that the active participle (-nte) is not used as an abstract noun, as it can be in English.

Verbs Used as Adjectives

There are two grammatical suffixes that create participles (verbal adjectives) from verbs:

• -da indicates the passive participle,
• -nte indicates the active participle.

They are used as adjectives and nouns:

• Cantada, sung, song, that which is being sung;
• Cantante, singing, singer, the person who is singing.

They are also used to form the passive and continuative constructions, described above.

Comparison

The comparative is expressed with plu, the negative comparative uses min:

• plu calda -- hotter; min calda -- less hot

The superlative is expressed with la plu, the negative superlative uses la min:

• la plu calda -- the hottest; la min calda -- the least hot

To compare two things, use plu...ce or min...ce:

• el es plu grande ce me -- he is bigger than me
• me es min grande ce el -- I am less big than he

To indicate equality, use tan...como:

• el es tan grande como me -- he is as big as I

To say that something is the x-most, use la (thing) x plu de la (quality):

• el es la stela tre de la plu briliante en la sielo -- it is the third brightest star in the sky

Adverbs

Adverbs are the same as adjectives. Adverbs and adverbial phrases come directly after the verb, or at the beginning of the sentence:

• un om felis; el dansa felis; pronto el va cade

Prepositions

There are 20 prepositions, some of which have dual purposes, depending on whether the context indicates we are talking about space, time, or relations:

Space

• at, to -- a
  • tu es a nu iorc, e me vade a nu iorc
  • la scala es a la mur
• in front of -- ante
  • la peto es ante la dorso
• behind -- pos
  • la dorso es pos la peto
• from, out of -- de
  • me es de nu iork
• in, into -- en
  • la cor es en la peto
• outside -- estra
  • me sapato es estra me calseta
• on -- sur
  • me xapo es sur me testa
• above, over -- supra
  • le nubes es supra me testa
• below, under -- su
  • me testa es su me xapo
• between, among -- entre
  • me testa es entre me oreas
• by, beside, up to -- asta
  • me oio destra es asta me oio sinistra (no distante!)
• along -- longo
  • la rio core longo la riva
• across, through -- tra
  • la fuma core tra la pipa
• around -- sirca
  • la luna vade sirca la tera, e la tera vade sirca la sol
• opposite -- contra
  • me apoia contra la muro

Time

• at, to -- a
  • me va es ala a un
• before -- ante
  • 11:45 es 15 ante 12
• after -- pos
  • 11:15 es 15 pos 11
• since -- de
  • es multe anios de la gera
• in, during -- en
  • me vide tu en autono
• between -- entre
  • es 15 minutos entre 11:30 e 11:45
  • el ia nase entre la du geras
• until -- asta
  • me labora asta medianote
  • asta doman!

Relations

• of -- de
  • esta auto es de me (es me auto!)
  • la table es fa de lenio
  • dona me un peso de torte, per favore
• about, concerning -- supra
  • la libro es supra la gera
• for, in order to, benefiting, on behalf of --per
  • el ia scrive la libro per se madre
  • me va vade per tu
  • nos labora per la moneta
• by (actor, author) -- par
  • la libro es par la autor
  • vos vade ala par la via vea
• with, in company of, using -- con
  • me scrive con un pen
• without, except -- sin
  • no es un libro sin pajes
• opposite, against, in spite of -- contra
  • me es contra la gera
• approximately, around, close to -- sirca
  • me ave sirca 50 anios, ma no 50 esata.
• like -- como
  • el ave un carater como un iena.

Prepositions may be used as adverbs (without the noun) by preceding them with a, e.g.:

• a ante -- before, ahead, in front
• a pos -- behind, in back
• a supra -- above, overhead
• a su -- below

Adverbs with similar meanings are also available, e.g.:

• plu pronto, presedente -- before, earlier
• plu tarde, seguente -- after, later

Conjunctions

• and -- e
• both...and... -- e...e
• or -- o
• either...or -- o...o
• neither...nor -- no... no
• but -- ma
• if, whether -- si
• then, consequently, therefore -- donce
• because -- car
• so that, in order that -- afin

See also Adverbial Phrases, below.

Relative Clauses

Like creole languages around the world, Lingua Franca Nova avoids complex sentences when possible. But inevitably, we find we need to use clauses anyway. The rules are straightforward:

A relative clause is a clause which modifies a noun. The clause begins with a relative pronoun (see above) and follows the noun it modifies.

• La om, ci abita asi, ia vade a Nu Iorc. -- The man who lives here went to New York.
• La fem, ci me ama, veni de Frans. -- The woman (whom) I love comes from France.
• El es la person ci ia vide la acaso. -- He is the one who saw the accident.

As you can see, the relative pronoun is never left out! The use of commas to bracket the relative clause is optional.

A nonrestrictive (nonessential, nondefining) relative clause is one that is not essential to the sentence, but only adds additional information.

• La can, ce ave macias negra, ia morde la polis. -- The dog, who has black spots, bit the policeman.
• Me padre, ci es retirada, abita en Mexico. -- My father, who is retired, lives in Mexico.

Ci and ce are used even when the noun modified is the direct object of the relative clause:

• La fia, ci el no atende, departe de el. -- The girl (whom) he ignored left him.

If the noun is the object of a preposition, that preposition precedes the relative pronoun:

• Me libro, en ce me scrive el nom, es supra la table. -- My book, in which I wrote her name, is on the table.
• La fia, de ci me ia oblida la nom, sta ante me. -- The girl, whose name I forgot, is standing before me.

Adverbial Clauses

Ce is used not only for "thing" nouns, but also when the relative clause refers back to the entire prior clause (i.e. is used adverbially):

• El salta a un metre alta, ce surprenda tota. -- She jumped a meter high, which surprised everyone.
• El scrive con se mano sinistra, ce es nonusual. -- He writes with his left hand, which is unusual.

In the second sentence, you can see a potential for confusion: Is the act unusual, or is his left hand unusual? In writing, the comma helps. But if one wishes to avoid any confusion, there are several options. Perhaps the simplest is to break the complex sentence into two (as is usually done in creoles). Another is to place the adverbial clause at the beginning of the sentence.

• El scrive con se mano sinistra. Esta es nonusual.
• Es nonusual ce el scrive con se mano destra.

Likewise, it is simple to clarify that it is the hand which is actually unusual:

• El scrive con se mano sinistra. Esta mano es nonusual.
• El scrive con se mano sinistra nonusual.

It is convenient to use words like do e cuando, with or without preceding prepositions, to introduce adverbial clauses:

• El scrive cuando se madre ia demanda.

Other examples:

• after -- pos cuando
• before -- ante cuando
• since -- de cuando
• till, until -- a cuando
• to where -- a do
• from where -- de do

In this next example, ce is not used because the object of help is the more properly the child, rather than the entire clause:

• I help the child find its mother -- Me aida la enfante trova se madre.

Like many creole languages, LFN often uses two verbs in sequence if they share the same subject:

• I know how to speak English -- Me sabe parla engles.

Complex use of gerunds such as 'at speaking" are normally simplified:

• You are good at speaking English -- Tu parla bon engles.

Independent Clauses

Independent clauses can stand as sentences by themselves, and are linked by conjunctions (see below).

• Me ia desira la auto, ma me no ia ave la moneta. -- I wanted the car, but I didn't have the money.

The use of commas to separate the two clauses is recommended, but not required.

Independent clauses are often so independent that they could be presented as two separate sentences.

• El ia vole canta e el ia vole dansa, ma el ia es temente. -- He wanted to sing and he wanted to dance, but he was afraid.
• El ia vole canta. El ia vole dansa. El ia es temente. -- He wanted to sing. He wanted to dance. He was afraid.

Numbers

• zero -- zero
• one -- un
• two -- du
• three -- tre
• four -- cuatro
• five -- sinco
• six -- ses
• seven -- sete
• eight -- oto
• nine -- nove
• ten -- des

Higher numbers are constructed as follows:

• eleven -- des-un
• twenty -- dudes
• hundred -- sento
• 101 -- sento-un
• 321 -- tresento-dudes-un
• 1000 -- mil
• 45 678 -- cuatrodes-sinco mil sessento-setedes-oto
• million -- milion

For numbers higher than millions, different countries use different systems (billion vs. milliard...). We have four suggestions for LFN:

• mil milion (10*9, i.e one with nine zeros)
• milion milion (10*12)
• mil milion milion (10*15)

(This is good for indicating the true size of large numbers!)

• milion a du (10*12)
• milion a tre (10*18)
• milion a cuatro (10*24)

If you wish to use bilion, use it for "milion milion," but continue using mil milion for 10*9. Trilion would then be 10*18, cuadrilion 10*24, etc.

In the sciences:

• des a nove (10*9)
• des a des-du (10*12)
• des a des-sinco (10*15)
• des a des-oto(10*18)
• des a dudes-un (10*21)
• des a dudes-cuatro (10*24)

Or:

• jiga (10*9)
• tera (10*12)
• peta (10*15)
• exa (10*18)
• zeta (10*21)
• iota (10*24)

Ordinals, Fractions, Multiples, etc.

Numbers preceding nouns are cardinal numbers which indicate quantit:

• tre omes e cuatro femes = three men and four women.

Ordinals are the same as cardinals, except following the noun.

• la om tre, the third man ("the man three")
• first -- prima

When using an ordinal without a noun, use numero before the number:

• el es numero tre, he is number three, he is the third.

Fractions constructed with -i.

• di, tri, cuatri,... desi, senti, mili, etc.
• unit -- unia
• whole -- completa

Multiple units are formed with -uple.

• duple, truple, cuatruple,...
• alone -- sola
• simple -- simple

For multiple occasions, use ves or veses:

• once -- un ves
• twice -- du veses, etc.

Addition is expressed with plu:

• un plu un es du.

Subtraction is expressed with min:

• ses min tre es tre.

Multiplication is expressed with ves or veses:

• du veses tre es ses.

Division is expressed with the phrase divideda par or just par:

• oto divideda par du es cuatro.

Powers may be expressed with a pote:

• ...a pote du (or ...cuadrida), ...a pote tre (or ...cubida), ...a pote cuatro, etc.

Roots may be expressed with a radis:

• ...a radis du (or la radis cuadra de...), a radis tre (or la radis cuba de...), a radis cuatro, etc.

Word Order

The usual, formal word order is subject noun phrase - verb phrase (- object noun phrase):

• El ia dise esta, he or she said that.

The "indirect object" exists only in the form of a prepositional phrase, and follows the object noun phrase:

• La fem dona la casa a me, the woman gives the house to me.

Pronoun objects may be placed before the verb:

• Nos los ia vide = Nos ia vide los, we saw them.

Questions may have the verb before the subject:

• Parla tu engles? = Tu parla engles? Do you speak English?

Noun phrases are ("pre-nouns" -) noun (- adjective):

• la flor bela, the pretty flower

Prenouns include articles, demonstratives, possessive pronouns, indefinites, and numbers.

In combinations, articles, demonstratives, and possessive pronouns precede indefinites and numbers:

• esta tre omes, these three men.

Numbers following the noun are understood to be ordinals:

• La om tre, the third man.

The adjectives bon (good) and mal (bad) may come just before the noun. Additional adjectives follow the noun, separated by commas or e (and). Adjectives are normally preceded by modifying adverbs:

• la fem vera bela, the very pretty woman.

Prepositional phrases are preposition - noun phrase and generally follow that which they modify:

• la mus en la casa, the mouse in the house.

Verb phrases are (auxiliary -) verb (- adverb):

• El va vade pasea pronto, he will go walking soon.

Adverbs and adverbial phrases may also be placed at the beginning of a sentence, followed by a comma.

Affixes

Basic Prefixes

• des- -- verbs: to undo... e.g. desinfeta, to disinfect.
• re- -- verbs: to do over or again, on back, in the reverse direction e.g. relua, to rehire.
• non- -- adjectives: not, the opposite of..., e.g. nonjusta, unjust

Basic Suffixes

Note: Words ending in a vowel lose that vowel when followed by a suffix that begins with a vowel. E.g. flora, flower, becomes floros, flowery, florin, flower-like, flori, to blossom, floreta, florette, floror or floriste, florist, floreria, florist's store.

Verbs

• -a -- from nouns: to use a tool or device, e.g. telefona, to telephone.
• -i -- from nouns or adjectives: to become..., e.g. flori, to blossom.
  • also, to cause or make something become..., e.g. umidi, to humidify.
  • Takes the place of endings such as -ify and -ize.
• -eta -- from verbs: a small version of an act, e.g. pluveta, to shower, rieta, to giggle, parleta, to chat.

Note that these verbs can then also be used as nouns:

• la telefona -- telephone use
• la flori -- flowering
• la umidi -- humidification
• la pluveta -- the rain shower

Adjectives

• -nte -- adjectives (and nouns) from verbs: characterized by doing..., one who..., e.g. amante, loving, loving one, lover.
• -da -- adjectives (and nouns) from verbs: characterized by being... -ed, one who is... -ed, e.g. amada, loved, loved one, beloved.
• -able -- from verbs: capable of being... -ed, worthy of being... -ed, e.g. amable, lovable.

• -in -- from nouns: similar to, like..., e.g. serpentin, serpentine, snake-like.
• -os -- from nouns: full of..., made of..., e.g. sucaros, sugary; oros, made of gold; festos, festive.
• -al -- from nouns: pertaining to, relating to..., e.g. nasional, national.
• -an -- from nouns: pertaining to some area or nation, e.g. american. (see -an under nouns, below)
• -iste -- from nouns: pertaining to a religion, philosophy, or other belief. (see -iste under nouns, below)

Note that adjectives formed this way may also be used as nouns.

Nouns

• -or -- from adjectives, nouns, or verbs: a person who makes or renders (adj.), does... (verb), or works with... (noun), commonly as part of his or her role or job, e.g. dirijor, director, carnor, butcher.
• -ador -- from adjectives, nouns, or verbs: a tool, instrument, device, or machine which renders or makes things (adj.), does... (verb), or works with... (noun), e.g. lavador, washing machine, umidador, humidifier, frescador, air conditioner.
• -eria -- from adjectives, nouns, or verbs: the place of work, a shop, or office... e.g. carneria, butcher shop.

• -ia -- from nouns or adjectives: abstract nouns, e.g. madria, motherhood, jelosia, jealousy...
  • also, a profession or field of study, e.g. psicolojia, psychology.
  • Takes the place of a variety of suffixes, such as -ity, -ship, and -hood.
• -r -- from verbs: the infinitive, e.g. amar, to love; finir, to finish...
  • May be followed by an adverb or an object or both, e.g. Amar vera la enfantes es bon.

• -isme -- from nouns: a religion or philosophy or other system of belief, e.g. budisme.
• -iste -- from nouns: one who adheres to a belief, e.g. budiste. (see -isme)
  • also, one who practices an art or science, commonly as his or her profession, e.g. psicolojiste. (see -ia)*
• -an -- from nouns, a native or, or dweller in, some area or nation, e.g. american (see adjectives).
  • also: the language of some area, nation, or people, e.g. italian, italian

Please note that lfn uses names for people and languages as close to the native terms as possible, e.g. italian, franses, deutx, elenica, curdi, etc.

The following prefixes are more restricted:

• -eta -- from nouns: diminutive, miniature version, young of some creature, inner clothing..., e.g. floreta, little flower, florette.
• -on -- from nouns: augmentive, outsized version, outer clothing..., e.g. senton, armchair.

Note that -eta and -on do not have the same meanings as "little" and "big."

• -o -- from nouns, male relatives, e.g. tio, uncle.
  • also: fruit and net trees, e.g. pero, pear tree.
• -a -- from nouns, female relatives, e.g. tia, aunt.
  • also: the fruit or nut of a tree, e.g. pera, pear.

Compounds

Most common: Nouns from a verb plus object

• lansapetra -- catapult ("throws a rock")
• pasatempo -- passtime
• cortiungia -- nail clipper

Mal or bon plus noun, adjective, or verb

• malodoros -- smelly
• bonfortuna -- good luck

Technical Affixes

Many technica prefixes and suffixes are available for the consistent formation of technical, scientific, and medical terms from Latin and Greek sources. They are used as in the romance languages, and follow the rule of transcription available

Punctuation

The period ( . ) indicates the end of a complete sentence. The first word in a sentence should be capitalized. Commas ( , ) are used to separate members of a list, or phrases within a sentence.

The question mark ( ? ) is used at the end of questions, and the exclamation mark ( ! ) at the end of sentences which are to be understood as having an emotional intensity if spoken.

Colons ( : ) are used before presenting a list not integral to a sentence, and semicolons ( ; ) may be used to separate members of a list following a colon which are phrases in themselves.

Hyphens ( - ) and Parentheses ( ( ) ) are used to insert additional information within the context of a sentence, or to add incidental information to a body of text.

Quotes are used to contain text that is taken from another text or is spoken by someone. Any of the various forms of quotes may be used (', ", <>, «», etc.). If the quotation extends beyond one paragraph, the endquote is left off until the final paragraph.

In general, punctuation is left up to the writer, the standard being only one of clarity. Over time, it would be advisable to devise standards for teaching purposes and universality.