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Revision as of 06:01, 27 October 2019
box
kalo lex
singular | plural | possessive | |
---|---|---|---|
1st person | wa I; me |
walo we; us |
wayo my; mine; our(s) |
2nd person | ni you |
nilo you (all) |
niyo your(s) |
3rd person | ko he; she; him; her; it |
kolo they; them; those |
koyo their(s) |
tlika
nata (nta) | tlaka (ta) | naka (na) | |
---|---|---|---|
nata relative |
tlaka man; male |
naka woman; female | |
hya- | hyanta grandparent |
hyata grandfather |
hyana grandmother |
o- | onta parent |
ota father |
ona mother |
ue- | uenta parent's sibling |
ueta uncle |
uena aunt |
-ku | ntaku sibling |
taku brother |
naku sister |
-hi | ntahi child |
tahi son; boy |
nahi daughter; girl |
-hya | ntahya grandchild |
tahya grandson |
nahya granddaughter |
-ue | ntaue cousin |
taue male cousin |
naue female cousin |
-hue | ntahue nibling |
tahue nephew |
nahue niece |
pa'a
na'o | ta'o | ha'o | |
---|---|---|---|
plosive pana (rain) |
pa | ta | ka |
nasal maua (flower) |
ma | na | nya |
affricate tlatsa (fire) |
tsa | tla | |
continuant honu (turtle) |
sa | ha | la |
semivowel yasa (wind) |
ua | ya | a |
noun phrases
The basic noun phrase in Kala is PREPOSITION DETERMINER RELATIVE-CLAUSE NOUN DESCRIPTIVE-VERB. Depending on context, this is fairly predominant with a few exceptions
- opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose Noun
- shab - related to knowledge and awareness
- shabra - v - to know; to be aware (of)
- shabedek - v - to teach; instruct (to cause to know)
- ashab - n - knowledge; awareness
- shabda - n - library; school
ukum
Kala | number | English | ordinal | multiple | fractional |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
na'o | 1 | one | kina'o first |
tina'o once |
- |
ueta'o | 12 | twelve | kiueta'o twelfth |
tiueta'o twelve times |
iueta'o a twelfth |
yauema'o yama'o |
54 | fifty four | kiyama'o fifty fourth |
tiyama'o 54 times |
iyama'o a fifty fourth |
nyetsa'o | 106 | one hundred (and) six | kinyetsa'o 106th |
tinyetsa'o 106 times |
inyetsa'o a 106th |
katle'o | 7000 | seven thousand | kikatle'o seven thousandth |
tikatle'o 7000 times |
ikatle'o 1/7000 |
genitive
singular | plural | |
---|---|---|
1 | nai | kai |
2 | tai | ai |
3 | lai | mai |
{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} {{col-end}}
kata hangul
a | e | i | o | u | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
k | 가 | 거 | 기 | 고 | 구 |
l | 라 | 러 | 리 | 로 | 루 |
m | 마 | 머 | 미 | 모 | 무 |
n | 나 | 너 | 니 | 노 | 누 |
p | 바 | 버 | 비 | 보 | 부 |
s | 사 | 서 | 시 | 소 | 수 |
t | 다 | 더 | 디 | 도 | 두 |
w | 와 | 워 | 위 | - | - |
y | 야 | 여 | - | 요 | 유 |
- | 아 | 어 | 이 | 오 | 우 |
hanmoya
a | ai | ya | e | ye | o | ao | yo | ua | uai | ue | u | i | yao | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
k | 가 | 개 | 갸 | 거 | 겨 | 고 | 과 | 교 | 구 | 귀 | 규 | 그 | 기 | - |
nk | 까 | - | - | 꺼 | - | 꼬 | - | - | - | - | - | 끄 | 끼 | - |
n | 나 | 내 | 냐 | 너 | 녀 | 노 | 놔 | 뇨 | 누 | 뉘 | 뉴 | 느 | 니 | - |
t | 다 | 대 | - | 더 | - | 도 | 돠 | - | - | - | - | - | 디 | - |
nt | 따 | - | - | 떠 | - | 또 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 띠 | - |
l | 라 | 래 | - | 러 | - | 로 | 롸 | - | - | - | - | - | 리 | - |
m | 마 | 매 | 먀 | 머 | 며 | 모 | 뫄 | 묘 | 무 | 뮈 | 뮤 | 므 | 미 | - |
p | 바 | 배 | 뱌 | 버 | 벼 | 보 | 봐 | 뵤 | 부 | 뷔 | 뷰 | 브 | 비 | - |
mp | 빠 | - | - | 뻐 | - | 뽀 | - | - | - | - | - | 쁘 | 삐 | - |
s | 사 | 새 | - | 서 | - | 소 | 솨 | - | 수 | 쉬 | 슈 | 스 | 시 | - |
- | 아 | 애 | 야 | 어 | 여 | 오 | 와 | 요 | 우 | 위 | 유 | 으 | 이 | - |
ts | 자 | 재 | - | 저 | - | 조 | 좌 | - | 주 | 쥐 | 쥬 | 즈 | 지 | - |
tl | 타 | 태 | - | 터 | - | 토 | 톼 | - | - | - | - | - | 티 | - |
h | 하 | 해 | 햐 | 허 | 혀 | 호 | 화 | 효 | 후 | 휘 | 휴 | 흐 | 히 | - |
Derivational morphology
- Noun → adjective: Suffix: -un
- Adjective → noun: Suffix: -iya
- Noun → verb: Suffix: -ek / -ra
- Verb → noun: Suffix: -a / a-
- Verb → adjective: Suffix: -u
- Adjective → adverb: Suffix: -ha / -ak
- One who X's (e.g. paint → painter): Suffix: -in
- Place where (e.g. wine → winery): Suffix: -da
- Diminutive: Suffix: -ish
- Augmentative: Suffix: -am
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subject/object
s/o | - | 1s | 2s | 3s | 1p | 2p | 3p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s | -an | - | -anti | -anu | -anuk | -anut | -anum |
2s | -ti | -eyan | - | -eyu | -eyuk | -eyut | -eyum |
3s | -u | -ilan | -ati | -ilu | -iluk | -ilut | -ilum |
1p | -uk | -ukan | -ukti | -uku | - | -ukut | -ukum |
2p | -ut | -utan | -ute | -utu | -utuk | - | -utum |
3p | -um | -uman | -umti | -umu | -umuk | -umut | - |
Semitic abjads
Name | Transliteration | IPA | Syriac | Hebrew | Arabic |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
alha | a | a / ʔ | ܐ | א | ا |
ba | b | b | ܒ | ב | ب |
gamla | g | ɡ / ɣ | ܓ | ג | ج گ |
dal | d | d / ð | ܕ | ד | د ذ |
ha | h | h / ɦ | ܗ | ה | ه |
wa | w, u, o | w / u: / o: | ܘ | ו | و |
zayin | z | z | ܙ | ז | ز |
khet | kh | ɦ / χ | ܚ | ח | ح خ |
tet | t | t | ܛ | ט | ط ظ |
yad | y, i | j / i: / e: | ܝ | י | ي |
kapu | k | k / x | ܟ | כ ך | ك |
lam | l | l | ܠ | ל | ل |
mem | m | m | ܡ | מ ם | م |
nun | n | n | ܢ | נ ן | ن |
samka | s | s | ܣ | ס | س |
eyin | e | e / ʔ | ܥ | ע | ع غ |
pe | p | p / f | ܦ | פ ף | ف پ |
tsad | ts | ts | ܨ | צ ץ | ص ض |
qupa | q | ʔ / q | ܩ | ק | ق |
ra | r | ɾ / r | ܪ | ר | ر |
shin | sh | ʃ | ܫ | ש | ش |
ta | t | t | ܬ | ת | ت ث |
word gen kala
C=ptkmnshcxl N=bdg A=aeiou W=12 Y=345 P=pkmnh S=pkmnhsc
c|ts x|tl b|mp d|nt g|nk 1|ua 2|ue 3|ya 4|ye 5|yo tu|ta lu|la
CA CACA CANA CAPY CASW CAW CAY NA NACA NAPY NASW NAW NAY PY PYCA PYNA PYSW SW SWCA SWNA SWPY WCA WNA YCA YNA
tense
present | past | future | |
---|---|---|---|
simple | -e | -i | -o |
perfect | -le | -li | -lo |
obligatory | -se | -so | |
immediate | -ib | ||
possible | -go |
case
Name | Suffix | Example | English Gloss |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | - | amul | the man (subject) |
Accusative | -wa / -u | mulwa | the man (object) |
Dative | bi- | bimul | for, to, on behalf of the man |
Ablative | -sha | mulesha | from the man |
Genitive | -ya / -ai | mulya | of the man |
Locative | -da | muleda | at, in, on the man |
Instrumental/Comitative | -ha / -ak | mulha | using/with the man |
Name | Suffix | Example | English Gloss |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | - | eqesh | the house (subject) |
Accusative | -wa / -u | eshwa | the house (object) |
Dative | bi- | biqesh | for, to, on behalf of the house |
Ablative | -sha | essha | from the house |
Genitive | -ya / -ai | eshai | of the house |
Locative | -da | eshda | at, in, on the house |
Instrumental/Comitative | -ha / -ak | eshak | using/with the house |
format
- muku - /muːˈkʊ/
- knife; blade; weapon; arms - "sword"
Morphosyntax
- Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order, though occasionally adverbs fall outside this paradigm and various particles can free-up word order. Kala has four grammatical persons — first, second, third, and obviative. The third person is used for proximate nouns, while obviates are non-present or demoted in comparison to a third person. Inanimate objects cannot be the proximate third person. Kala is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mostly suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words.
Nouns are inflected for number.
animacy
All nouns are classified as either animate or inanimate. Generally it is easy to determine whether a noun will be animate, although some inherently inanimate objects such as...
Arguments of verbs are marked with a (patient marker) transitivity prefix/particle which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which a grammatically inanimate object are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.
verbs
The Kala verbal template contains a stem with several suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Kala can be roughly broken down into the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final tend to be required elements. In Kala, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English.
notes
- intransitive has NO object / transitive has object
Locative verbs
Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. In English, locations are indicated with adverbs and/or prepositions, this is not the case in Kala however. To express locative concepts in Kala, the following verbs/affixes are used:
The general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”.
- na tsakahue nayo
- 1s home-LOC 1s.GEN
- I'm in my home. / I'm at home.
Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:
- -hue – in; at; on (general locative)
- nahe – within; inside
- nyaue – out; outside of; exterior
- ma’e – before; in front of
- pue – behind; after; in back of
- ua’e – above; over; on
- tahe – below; under; beneath; bottom
- ya’e – near; close to
- uaye – away (from)
- maye – between; among
The above are used as prepositions, but can also function strictly as verbs.
|
|
The suffix -la (from yala “go; walk; travel”) forms an allative (or motive) preposition, expressing movement in the indicated direction, stopping at the position indicated by the locative:
- nahela topu – into bed
- pahela ke ana tayo – onto your head
- tsayela tsaka – up to the house
The locative/allative pair works like English on/onto, in/into, but in Kala this distinction is made for all locatives: you must distinguish between them:
- pue’ela kuanu – go behind a bush - (motion implied → allative)
- pue kuanu koma – hide behind a bush - (no motion → locative)
Kala uses nouns to express more complex spatial relationships (these words are adverbs in English) this means that for example the word mokua should be interpreted as something like the everywhere or all places. So a phrase like mokua na'eta anya (meaning I see you everywhere) is literally I see you in all places. Likewise, yosohue na'eta anya means I see you at (the/my) left (area).
- mokua – everywhere; all places
- hina – here; hither
- uana – there (near you)
- yemua – there (over there)
The above nouns never take the -hue suffix.
extra
Adessive case | adjacent location | near/at/by the house | location | mita tsaka ya'e | dog house near/by |
Apudessive case | location next to something | next to the house | location | ||
Inessive case | inside something | inside the house | location | mita tsaka nahe | dog house inside |
Intrative case | between something | between the houses | location | mita tsaka-m maye | dog house-pl between |
Locative case | location | at/on/in the house | location | mita tsaka-hue | dog at/on/in the house |
Pertingent case | in contact with something | touching the house | location | ||
Subessive case | under something | under/below the house | location | mita tsaka tahe | dog house under/below |
Superessive case | on the surface | on (top of) the house | location | mita tsaka ua'e | dog house on [top of] |
Ablative case | movement away from something | away from the house | motion from | mita tsaka uaye-la | dog house away-from |
Delative case | movement from the surface | from (the top of) the house | motion from | ||
Egressive case | marking the beginning of a movement or time | beginning from the house | motion from | ||
Elative case | out of something | out of the house | motion from | mita tsaka uaye-la | dog house out-of-go |
Initiative case | starting point of an action | beginning from the house | motion from | ||
Allative case | movement onto something | onto the house | motion to | mita tsaka ua'e-la | dog house on [top of]-go |
Allative case | movement to (the adjacency of) something / movement onto something | to the house | motion to | mita tsaka ka'e-la | dog house toward-go |
Illative case | movement into something | into the house | motion to | mita tsaka nahe-la | dog house into-go |
Lative case | movement to something | to/into the house | motion to | ||
Sublative case | movement onto the surface or below something | on(to) the house / under the house | motion to | ||
Terminative case | marking the end of a movement or time | as far as the house | motion to | mita tsaka tsaye-la | dog house up-to-go |
Perlative case | movement through or along | through/along the house | motion via | ||
Prolative case | movement using a surface or way | by way of/through the house | motion via | ||
Prosecutive case | across or along | along the road | motion via | mita misa saye-la | dog road along-go |
Vialis case | through or by | by way of the house, through the house | motion via | ||
Ablative case | all-round indirect case | concerning the house | relation | ||
Aversive case | avoiding or fear | avoiding the house | relation | ||
Benefactive case | for, for the benefit of, intended for | for the house | relation | ||
Causal case | because, because of | because of the house | relation | ||
Causal-final case | efficient or final cause | for a house | relation | ||
Comitative case | in company of something | with the house | relation | ||
Dative case | shows direction or recipient | for/to the house | relation | ||
Distributive case | distribution by piece | per house | relation | ||
Distributive-temporal case | how often something happens | daily; on Sundays | relation | ||
Genitive case | shows relationship, possession | of the house | relation | ||
Ornative case | endowment with something | equipped with a house | relation | ||
Possessed case | possession by something | the house is owned by someone | relation | ||
Privative case | lacking something | without a house | relation | ||
Semblative case | Similarity to something | that tree is like a house | relation | ||
Sociative case | along with something, together with something | with the house | relation | ||
Partitive case | used for amounts | three (of the) houses | semantic | ||
Vocative case | used for addressing someone, with or without a preposition | Hey, father! O father! Father! | semantic | ||
Abessive case | the lack of something | without the house | state | ||
Adverbial case | being as something | as a house | state | ||
Comparative case | similarity with something | similar to the house | state | ||
Equative case | comparison with something | like the house | state | ||
Essive case | temporary state of being | as the house | state | ||
Essive-formal case | marking a condition as a quality (a kind of shape) | as a house | state | ||
Essive-modal case | marking a condition as a quality (a way of being) | as a house | state | ||
Exessive case | marking a transition from a condition | from being a house (i.e., "it stops being a house") | state | ||
Formal case | marking a condition as a quality | as a house | state | ||
Identical case | showing that something is identical | being the house | state | ||
Orientative case | oriented towards something | turned towards the house | state | ||
Revertive case | backwards to something | against the house | state | ||
Translative case | change of a condition into another | (turning) into a house | state | ||
Essive case | specifying days and dates | on Monday; on November 5th | time | ||
Temporal case | specifying a time | at seven [o'clock]; at midnight; at New Year's | time |
more
A huge storm is brewing over the sea. | above | pakyoha ua'e muana mulanko |
He was wearing overalls on top of his other clothes. | above | |
She leaned over the table to reach the salt. | above | |
The clouds are above my head. | above | |
The mountain casts a shadow over our house. | above | |
The roof is above the ceiling. | above | |
The sun rises over the earth. | above | |
December comes after November. | after / behind | |
I will come back in three days. | after / behind | |
My back is behind my chest. | after / behind | |
The equipment is behind a locked door. | after / behind | |
The naughty boys hid behind the shed. | after / behind | |
The snake disappeared behind the tree. | after / behind | |
They will start drinking after sunset. | after / behind | |
Turn right after the church. | after / behind | |
We hear thunder after we see lightning. | after / behind | |
Close your eyes against the light. | against | |
He slips and falls against the wall. | against | |
I am against the war. | against | |
Swimming upstream is hard. | against | |
The ancient Greeks fought against Persia. | against | |
The ladder is against the fence. | against | |
This camera is waterproof. | against | |
You have acted against my wishes. | against | |
According to the forecast, tomorrow will be even warmer. | along | |
I walk along the street. | along | |
The boy slides along the branch. | along | |
The raft floated down the river. | along | |
There's a spider crawling up my leg. | along | |
Time travel is possible, according to this physicist. | along | |
Around dawn, I heard your dog barking. | around | |
I am about 50 years old. | around | |
I can think of about a hundred reasons not to reveal my age. | around | |
Ivy grows around the trunk. | around | |
My hand is closed around my thumb. | around | |
She wanders round the garden and smells the flowers. | around | |
The campers sing songs around the fire. | around | |
The concert began at about half past eight. | around | |
The moon goes around the earth, and the earth goes around the sun. | around | |
There is green paint around the windows. | around | |
We intend to travel round the world on horseback. | around | |
At least thirty people are waiting. | at / to | |
At midnight, there will be fireworks. | at / to | |
From Monday to Thursday is four days. | at / to | |
He orders the soldiers to attack the fort. | at / to | |
He painted his house white. | at / to | |
He raises his eyes to the sky. | at / to | |
He's resting at home. | at / to | |
I am travelling to New York. | at / to | |
I have to leave at four o'clock. | at / to | |
I have visited this town before. | at / to | |
I walk down the street, from one end to the other. | at / to | |
I will not answer that question. | at / to | |
I will serve the shrimp cold. | at / to | |
I will teach you to speak the language. | at / to | |
I'll meet you at the crossroads. | at / to | |
Put your books away. | at / to | |
Run in the house. | at / to | |
Run into the house. | at / to | |
Run to the house. | at / to | |
See below. | at / to | |
She finished the work at the start of the year. | at / to | |
She gave a bone to the dog / She gave the dog a bone. | at / to | |
Sudan is to the south of Egypt. | at / to | |
Tell me your name. | at / to | |
The boy added his name to the list. | at / to | |
The cat jumps on the table. | at / to | |
The cat jumps onto the table. | at / to | |
The chair fell to bits. | at / to | |
The diver went down. | at / to | |
The dog runs forward. | at / to | |
The ladder is leaning on the wall. | at / to | |
The night is progressing towards dawn. | at / to | |
The shape of Italy is similar to a leg. | at / to | |
The ship is at sea. | at / to | |
The wizard changed himself into a goat. | at / to | |
They elected Maria (as) president. | at / to | |
This pen belongs to me. | at / to | |
We are sitting at the table. | at / to | |
We can return later. | at / to | |
We wish you a happy birthday. | at / to | |
What happens if you don't conform to the rules? | at / to | |
You annoy me from time to time. | at / to | |
You can put your bag overhead. | at / to | |
Your house is next to mine. | at / to | |
Your idea seems absurd to me. | at / to | |
You're standing too close to the edge. | at / to | |
A dog is lying in front of the shop. | before / front | |
I come before you to apologize. | before / front | |
It's so dark that I can't see my hand in front of my eyes. | before / front | |
January comes before February. | before / front | |
My chest is in front of my back. | before / front | |
The magazines are in front of the books. | before / front | |
They intend to finish work before sunset. | before / front | |
They put a pile of books in front of me. | before / front | |
Turn left before the end of the street. | before / front | |
We experience lightning before thunder. | before / front | |
We have a lot of work ahead of us. | before / front | |
We see lightning before we hear thunder. | before / front | |
He was born between the wars. | between | |
I usually wake up between seven and eight. | between | |
LFN promotes communication between peoples. | between | |
My head is between my ears. | between | |
She travels between Paris and Madrid every week. | between | |
The ball fell among the flowers. | between | |
The Czech Republic is between Germany, Austria, Slovenia, and Poland. | between | |
The table is between the chair and the wall. | between | |
There will be a ten-minute interval between the two acts. | between | |
What is the difference between a wall and a fence? | between | |
You are among friends here. | between | |
You have to pay between ten and twenty euros. | between | |
(To be seen from) across the bridge is a wonderful view. | beyond | |
The explorers journeyed beyond the mountains. | beyond | |
The school is beyond the church. | beyond | |
They rowed a dinghy across the lake. | beyond | |
This task is beyond my talents. | beyond | |
Hamlet is a play by Shakespeare. | by | |
He was hit by a snowball. | by | |
I am surprised by your reaction. | by | |
I shall destroy the fence with a single kick. | by | |
I travelled here by train. | by | |
Roberto is my son-in-law. | by | |
Switzerland is surrounded by other countries. | by | |
The attack of/on the Trojans by the Greeks. (The Greeks attack the Trojans) | by | |
The bottles are color-coded. | by | |
The love of/for the mother. (The mother is loved) | by | |
The mother's love. (The mother loves) | by | |
The prisoner escaped by disguising himself as a door. | by | |
This problem cannot be solved by negotiation. | by | |
We discovered your secrets via our spies. | by | |
Because you weren't there, I spoke on your behalf. | for | |
Cups are used for drinking. | for | |
For example, consider the whale. | for | |
For that reason, I can't talk for long. | for | |
He kicks the ball toward the goal. | for | |
I bought it for a thousand euros. | for | |
I voted for the proposal, but you voted against it. | for | |
I will go to the shops for you. | for | |
I won't delay you for more than a minute. | for | |
I'm fighting for my life. | for | |
I'm travelling (in order) to see the world. | for | |
She wrote the book for her mother. | for | |
Thank you for your postcard. | for | |
The friends left for the coast. | for | |
The journey will be dangerous for you. | for | |
We are going to Colorado for a week. | for | |
We work for money. | for | |
You paid too much for that computer. | for | |
You're dressed for an evening of dancing. | for | |
Behave like an adult. | like / as | |
He laughs like a hyena. | like / as | |
I can jump as high as you. | like / as | |
Yoghurt is like cream. | like / as | |
Your heart is hard as stone. | like / as | |
You've reached the same conclusion as me. | like / as | |
A spider creeps from behind the clock. | of / from | |
Do you like lamb? | of / from | |
For his breakfast, he just drinks coffee. | of / from | |
Give me a piece of cake, please. | of / from | |
He is the world table-tennis champion. | of / from | |
I am from New York. | of / from | |
I have received a letter from the king. | of / from | |
I have three boxes of books to sell. | of / from | |
I like listening to the singing of the birds. | of / from | |
I'm late because of a traffic jam. | of / from | |
I'm traveling from Paris to London. | of / from | |
Many years have passed since the war. | of / from | |
My sunglasses are broken. | of / from | |
She lent me an ugly-colored towel. | of / from | |
She was impressed by the stillness of the forest. | of / from | |
Since I was a child, I've wanted to stand on the moon. | of / from | |
That is my brother's car. | of / from | |
The belltower is to the right of the cathedral. | of / from | |
The cat jumps off the chair. | of / from | |
The leader was shouting from the front, but I couldn't hear. | of / from | |
The monster came from below. | of / from | |
The papers fell from the window. | of / from | |
The result depends on the method used. | of / from | |
The robber hides his face from the cameras. | of / from | |
The seagull is a seabird. | of / from | |
The sparrows climb from among the trees. | of / from | |
The table is made of wood. | of / from | |
The time has come to talk of many things. | of / from | |
The tower is forty metres high. | of / from | |
They added all the ingredients except the salt. | of / from | |
They used sugar instead of salt. | of / from | |
This bucket is full of fish. | of / from | |
This will be your bedroom. | of / from | |
Water differs from acid in its chemistry. | of / from | |
We want to be free of you. | of / from | |
We've been working since dawn. | of / from | |
You forgot to apply the handbrake. | of / from | |
A rock that falls onto the earth is called a meteorite. | on / onto | |
Don't sit on the broken chair. | on / onto | |
If you stand on the balcony, you can see the sea. | on / onto | |
I'll hang this painting on the wall. | on / onto | |
Is there life on Mars? | on / onto | |
I've read many books on the subject. | on / onto | |
My hat is on my head. | on / onto | |
Put your cards on the table. | on / onto | |
She put a thimble onto her finger. | on / onto | |
The girl is crying over her lost doll. | on / onto | |
The man kissed the woman on her cheek. | on / onto | |
The play is about the war. | on / onto | |
The tarmac on the road is melting in the heat. | on / onto | |
Don't phone outside work hours. | outside | |
He remembers nothing except for his name. | outside | |
My shoe is outside my sock. | outside | |
She lives outside the city. | outside | |
The children ran outside the house. | outside | |
There is no air outside the ship. | outside | |
You are out of danger now. | outside | |
My dog is more intelligent than me. | than | |
That is much less interesting than this. | than | |
There are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in your philosophy. | than | |
A lane leads through the fields to the lake. | through | |
He sat in an armchair throughout the night. | through | |
I look at the stars through the open window. | through | |
The children ran through the village. | through | |
The explosion could be heard throughout the city. | through | |
The rain has found a way through my bag. | through | |
The train goes from Milan to Rome via Bologna. | through | |
They've stayed together through the years. | through | |
Water flows through the pipes. | through | |
Antelopes were resting under the trees. | under | |
He wore a sweater under his jacket. | under | |
I can't work under your rules. | under | |
I have a parcel under my arm. | under | |
The floor is below the ceiling. | under | |
The real color of the ceiling is scarcely visible under this nasty paint. | under | |
The snow crunches under my feet. | under | |
The water went under the furniture. | under | |
There's a table of sandwiches under the window. | under | |
You appear to be under the influence of the wine. | under | |
He works until midnight. | up to / as far | |
He's visited every country from Andorra to Zambia. | up to / as far | |
I am soaked to the skin. | up to / as far | |
She accompanied me to my car. | up to / as far | |
Study pages 25 to 42 (inclusive). | up to / as far | |
The ground is covered in snow as far as the mountains. | up to / as far | |
The price fell to just one euro. | up to / as far | |
Until tomorrow / See you tomorrow! | up to / as far | |
Wait until the summer. | up to / as far | |
And with those words he disappeared. | with / using | |
Compare this with yesterday's weather. | with / using | |
Elena is a girl with red hair. | with / using | |
Every day I get up with the sun. | with / using | |
Everything changes with the passage of time. | with / using | |
He bought a house with the money he inherited. | with / using | |
His wife looks at him in amazement. | with / using | |
I see the girl with her father. | with / using | |
I write with a pen. | with / using | |
Not many words start with X. | with / using | |
She's given me a book with many photos. | with / using | |
The horse kicks. | with / using | |
The old man sits with a pipe in his mouth. | with / using | |
The sugar has been mixed with salt. | with / using | |
They are battling with the elements. | with / using | |
They want to eat with us. | with / using | |
We are drinking coffee with milk. | with / using | |
We hear with our ears. | with / using | |
We will fail even with your help. | with / using | |
A good idea came into her head. | within | |
Are we in agreement? | within | |
Beethoven was born in 1770. | within | |
Cats don't like being in water. | within | |
He fell into the river. | within | |
His fingers are stuck in the handle of a cup. | within | |
I don't want to travel in this weather. | within | |
I have some thoughts in my mind. | within | |
I will repeat this in Greek. | within | |
In addition, I see a new problem. | within | |
In fact I see two problems. | within | |
It started raining heavily while the reporter was talking. | within | |
I've translated the article into French. | within | |
My heart is in my chest. | within | |
Put the rubbish in the bin. | within | |
She wrote the book in three weeks. | within | |
The building is on fire. | within | |
The children are sitting in a circle. | within | |
The plants are in pots. | within | |
The prices are in euros. | within | |
The sun is in the sky. | within | |
We are in danger. | within | |
We are passing into a new era. | within | |
We are waiting in the car. | within | |
We don't see the stars in the day. | within | |
We spent an hour in conversation. | within | |
We visited the museum in February. | within | |
He fell asleep without meaning to. | without | |
I shall decorate the entire house without help. | without | |
I walked through the rain with no umbrella. | without | |
The painting fell down for no apparent reason. | without | |
The researcher left without discovering the answer. | without | |
There's no smoke without fire. | without | |
You are totally without mercy. | without | |
Your wife likes her coffee without milk. | without |
Syntax
Simple sentences
Complex sentences
Clause coordination
Clause-level conjunctions such as ku "and", ua "or", or ehe "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.
- tahi tohyo ku nahi pina
- boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent
- The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.
- ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai
- now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM
- Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.
Coordination of noun phrases
Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction ma "and" (sometimes "with").
- yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya
- day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see
- I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.
- kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya
- squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make
- The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.
- ona ma ota kyosanku
- mother and father fornicate-RECP
- Mother and father have sex [with each other].
- ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli
- 2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT
- You and I will go to the forest together.
Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction ua "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction ue "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.
- ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo
- 2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM
- You may eat an apple or a pear.
- tsola ue otso itsikua mataye
- fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST
- It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.
Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with ehe "but; however" (or me more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.
- yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya
- day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive
- The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.
- na itlaka mek inaka unya
- 1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know
- I know this man, but not this woman.
Complement clauses
Relative clauses
Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -tle (or -le if the last syllable has tl). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:
- na ka naka amyatle pesoue
- 1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL
- I want to meet a girl who is friendly.
- naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua
- sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV
- My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.
- kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli
- 3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT
- They who fight well will defeat the enemy.
Evidentiality
affix | from | |
---|---|---|
direct participation (dir) | - | - |
sensory perception (sens) | - | - |
inferred from evidence (evid) | - | - |
assumption; guess (ass) | -ho | toho |
hearsay; fiction (rep) | -tai | ata |
The first set of evidentiality markers indicated that the evidence was gained directly by the speaker via their senses. There were three such markers:
- -xx-, which denotes that the speaker witnessed the action visually;
- -xx-, which denotes that the speaker tasted or smelled the evidence and
- -xx-, which denotes that the speaker felt or heard the evidence.
The second set of markers indicated that the evidence is secondhand and not directly derived from the speaker's experience. There were two such markers:
- -xx-, which indicates that the information was received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate and
- -xx-, which indicates that the speaker has no doubts about the information he has received.
The third set indicated that the information was not personally experienced but was inferred from indirect evidence. There were three of these markers:
- -xx-, which indicated that there was physical evidence;
- -xx-, which indicates that the information is general knowledge and
- -xx-, which indicates that the information is inferred or assumed based on the speaker's past experience of similar situations.
kalama
- kalama - speak; talk; utter
- kasa - house; home; abode, dwelling
- kawi - coffee
- kome - eat; consume
- ko - he, she [3sg]
- kute - listen; hear
- le - past tense [PST]
- lo - many (more than one) / -lo - plural [PL]
- loka - place; location
- ma - what; which
- maka - do; make; cause
- miyo - feline; cat; lion; tiger
- ne - no; not; negative [NEG]
- ni - you [2sg]
- o - direct object [DO]
- oma - mother; grand-
- opa - father; grand-
- sa - future tense [FUT]
- sapa - know; understand
- ta - be big; large; grand
- tale - give; transfer; donate
- wa - I, me [1sg]
- waka - bovine; cattle; livestock
- wite - see; look; watch; observe
- yo - have; possess; hold / -yo - possessive; genitive
- yu - (be) in; at; on; by; near