Verbs in Vrkhazhian

Vrkhazhian verbs are called madsiṟud (singular madsiṟu). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root (which is collectively called masčišu and translated as "pattern"), though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active, passive, causative, and reflexive). There are five tenses (past, past progressive, present, present progressive, and future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. There is only one aspect: the perfect, called saẕkeru, which is indicated by reduplicating the entire verb. Additionally, there are also five moods (indicative, jussive, subjunctive, commissive, and propositive) and these are also indicated by prefix, placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix -am.

When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb d-s-ṟ (to do, to perform, to execute, to act). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the active present singular indicative, it is called dusaṟ because that is the active present singular form of the verb.

Verb Patterns

Madsirən Dusaraẇ (Dusar verbs)

This is the simplest basic form of a verb, it gives the general idea of its root.

k-j-m (to support, to hold up)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	dsarru		to do	dsarri		to be done
Past Realis	nudsur	nudasram	did	nidsir	nidasram	was done
Past Prog.	yodsur	yodasram	was doing	yedsir	yedasram	was being done
Past Irrealis	śadsur	śadasram	would have done	śedsir	śedasram	would have been done
Present Realis	dusar	dasram	does	dasir	dasram	is done
Present Prog.	hadsur	hadasram	is doing	hedsir	hedasram	is being done
Present Irrealis	sadsur	sadasram	would do	sedsir	sedasram	would be done
Future	ʾadsur	ʾadasram	will do/might do	ʾedsir	ʾedasram	will be done/might be done

Madsiṟom Lodsaṟaẇ (Lodsarh verbs)

This stem is formed by prefixing an -l-, which is dissimilated to -z- near another ⟨l⟩, between the base form and the tense prefix. The meaning this stem imparts is reflexive. Additionally, the genitive pronouns are used to indicate the subject of a verb in a reflexive construction.

m-n-š (to write)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	lemnaššu		to write to self	lemnešši		to be written by self
Past Realis	nulmunaš	nulmunšam	wrote to self	nilmoneš	nilmanšam	was written by self
Past Prog.	yolmunaš	yolmunšam	was writing to self	yelmoneš	yelmanšam	was being written by self
Past Irrealis	ćalmunaš	ćalmunšam	would have written to self	ćelmoneš	ćelmanšam	would have been written by self
Present Realis	lomnaš	lomnašam	writes to self	lomneš	lomnešam	is written by self
Present Prog.	hulmunaš	hulmunšam	is writing to self	hilmaneš	hilmonšam	is being written by self
Present Irrealis	ẕulmunaš	ẕulmunšam	would write to self	ẕilmaneš	ẕilmanšam	would be written by self
Future Realis	ṇtalmunaš	ṇtalmunšam	will write to self	ṇtelmaneš	ṇtelmanšam	will be written by self
Future Irrealis	ʾalmunaš	ʾalmunšam	will write to self	ʾelmaneš	ʾelmanšam	will be written by self

Madsiṟom Dussaṟaẇ (Dussarh verbs)

This stem is formed by gemminating the middle root. The meaning this stem imparts is causative.

l-n-d (to learn)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾelunnaddu		to teach	ʾelanneddi		to be taught
Past Realis	nulunnad	nulunnadam	taught	nilanned	nilannedam	was taught
Past Prog.	yolunnad	yolunnadam	was teaching	yelanned	yelannedam	was being taught
Past Irrealis	ćalunnad	ćalunnadam	would have taught	ćelanned	ćelannedam	would have been taught
Present Realis	lunnad	lunnadam	teaches	lanned	lannedam	is taught
Present Prog.	hulunnad	hulunnadam	is teaching	hilanned	hilannedam	is being taught
Present Irrealis	ẕulunnad	ẕulunnadam	would teach	ẕilanned	ẕilannedam	would be taught
Future Realis	ṇtalunnad	ṇtalunnadam	will teach	ṇtelanned	ṇtelannedam	will be taught
Future Irrealis	ʾalunnad	ʾalunnadam	might teach	ʾelanned	ʾelannedam	might be taught

Madsiṟom Lodussaṟaẇ (Lodussarh verbs)

This stem is formed by geminating the middle root and prefixing an -l-, which is dissimilated to -z- near another ⟨l⟩, between the base form and the tense prefix. The meaning this stem imparts is autocausative. In the active voice it either indicates the subject is making itself do an action, or in the case of attributive verbs (e.g. to be X), it indicates that the subject becomes the attribute. In the passive voice, it either indicates that the subject is made to do an action to itself, or it simply indicates the subject undergoes a change of state.

š-m-ř (to know)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	lešummařřu		to inform self	lešammeřři		to become known
Past Realis	nulšummař	nulšummařam	informed self	nilšammeř	nilšammeřam	became known
Past Prog.	yolummař	yolšummařam	was informing self	yelšammeř	yelšammeřam	was becoming known
Past Irrealis	ćalšummař	ćalšummařam	would have informed self	ćelšammeř	ćelšammeřam	would have become known
Present Realis	lošummař	lošummařam	informs self	lošammeř	lošammeřam	becomes known
Present Prog.	hulšummař	hulšummařam	is informing self	hilšammeř	hilšammeřam	is becoming known
Present Irrealis	ẕulšummař	ẕulšummařam	would inform self	ẕilšammeř	ẕilšammeřam	would become known
Future Realis	ṇtalšummař	ṇtalšummařam	will inform self	ṇtelšammeř	ṇtelšammeřam	will become known
Future Irrealis	ʾalšummař	ʾalšummařam	might inform self	ʾelšammeř	ʾelšammeřam	might become known

Other verbs

Adjutative verb

This stem is formed by prefixing ṭo- between the base form and the tense prefix and the meaning it imparts is adjutative, which indicates that the subject is not an agent of the action, but assists the (unstated) agent.

q-m-d (to digest)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ṭoqmaddu		to help digest	ṭoqmeddi		to be helped with digesting
Past Realis	nuṭoqmad	nuṭoqmadam	helped digest	niṭoqmed	niṭoqmedam	was helped with digesting
Past Prog.	yoṭoqmad	yoṭoqmadam	was helping digest	yeṭoqmed	yeṭoqmedam	was being helped with digesting
Past Irrealis	ćaṭoqmad	ćaṭoqmadam	would have helped digest	ćeṭoqmed	ćeṭoqmedam	would have been helped with digesting
Present Realis	ṭoqmad	ṭoqmadam	helps digest	ṭoqmed	ṭoqmedam	is helped with digesting
Present Prog.	huṭoqmad	huṭoqmadam	is helping digest	hiṭoqmed	hiṭoqmedam	is being helped with digesting
Present Irrealis	ẕuṭoqmad	ẕuṭoqmadam	would help digest	ẕiṭoqmed	ẕiṭoqmedam	would be helped with digesting
Future Realis	ṇtaṭoqmad	ṇtaṭoqmadam	will help digest	ṇteṭoqmed	ṇteṭoqmedam	will be helped with digesting
Future Irrealis	ʾaṭoqmad	ʾaṭoqmadam	might help digest	ʾeṭoqmed	ʾeṭoqmedam	might be helped with digesting

Comitative verb (Mukhebic)

This stem only occurs in the Mukhebic dialect of Vrkhazhian and is formed by prefixing su- between the base form and the tense prefix and the meaning it imparts is comitative, which indicates that the subject does an action along with a co-agent, which is promoted to primary object.

m-t-t (to walk)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	sumtattu		to walk with	sumtitti		to be walked along with
Past Realis	nusumtat	nusumtatam	walked with	ñisumtit	ñisumtitam	was walked along with
Past Prog.	ʾüsumtat	ʾüsumtatam	was walking with	yisumtit	yisumtitam	was being walked along with
Past Irrealis	ćasumtat	ćasumtatam	would have walked with	ćesumtit	ćesumtitam	would have been walked along with
Present Realis	sumtat	sumtatam	walks with	sumtit	sumtitam	is walked along with
Present Prog.	husumtat	husumtatam	is walking with	hisumtit	hisumtitam	is being walked along with
Present Irrealis	ẕusumtat	ẕusumtatam	would walk with	ẕisumtit	ẕisumtitam	would be walked along with
Future Realis	ṇdasumtat	ṇdasumtatam	will walk with	ṇdisumtit	ṇdisumtitam	will be walked along with
Future Irrealis	ʾasumtat	ʾasumtatam	might walk with	ʾisumtit	ʾisumtitam	might be walked along with

Substitutive verb (Mukhebic)

This stem only occurs in the Mukhebic dialect of Vrkhazhian and is formed by infixing di- after the first root consonant and the meaning it imparts is substitutive, which indicates that the subject does an action on behalf of another actor, which is promoted to primary object.

l-d-ś (to enter, to go in)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	dildaśśu		to enter on behalf	dildiśśi		to be entered on behalf
Past Realis	nudildaś	nudildaśam	entered on behalf	ñidildiś	ñidildiśam	was entered on behalf
Past Prog.	ʾüdildaś	ʾüdildaśam	was entering on behalf	yidildiś	yidildiśam	was being entered on behalf
Past Irrealis	ćadildaś	ćadildaśam	would have entered on behalf	ćedildiś	ćedildiśam	would have been entered on behalf
Present Realis	dildaś	dildaśam	enters on behalf	dildiś	dildiśam	is entered on behalf
Present Prog.	hudildaś	hudildaśam	is entering on behalf	hidildiś	hidildiśam	is being entered on behalf
Present Irrealis	ẕudildaś	ẕudildaśam	would enter on behalf	ẕidildiś	ẕidildiśam	would be entered on behalf
Future Realis	ṇdadildaś	ṇdadildaśam	will enter on behalf	ṇdidildiś	ṇdidildiśam	will be entered on behalf
Future Irrealis	ʾadildaś	ʾadildaśam	might enter on behalf	ʾidildiś	ʾidildiś	might be entered on behalf

Verb moods

Vrkhazhian has five moods, which are indicated by prefixed placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. These are the indicative, the jussive, the subjunctive, the commissive, and the propositive.

The indicative mood is the default mood of verbs and indicates what the speakers believes to be a statement of fact. The jussive mood is mainly used for expressing obligation or duty, but when there are no subject pronouns or nouns, it functions as the imperative mood, expressing direct commands to the adressee(s). The subjunctive mood expresses hypothetical actions or situations, primarily in that-clauses. Additionally, it can function as the optative mood, expressing a wish or desire. The commissive mood expresses a commitment to do something, like a promise or threat, and the propositive mood simply expresses suggestions or propositions.

s-b-b (to kill)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Jussive	wisbab	wisbabam	have to kill	wisbeb	wisbebam	have to be killed
Subjunctive	bisbab	bisbabam	may kill	bisbeb	bisbebam	may be killed
Commissive	ḵapsubab	ḵapsubbam	shall kill	ḵepsabeb	ḵepsabbam	shall be killed
Propositive	mursubab	mursubbam	should kill	mirsabeb	mirsabbam	should be killed

Weak Verbs

Verbs are considered weak if the root contains a weak radical, which are called called haẏwud. These weak radicals are ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨h⟩. Weak verbs have different morphophonological properties depending on the position of the radical with respect to the other radicals. Verbs where the first radical is weak are called madsiṟud ʾeššamud ("strengthened verbs") because the consonants ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩, having the phonemic value of /j w/, are fortified to [ʝ β]. The exception to this is if there is an /a/ or /e/ preceding them, where they become non-syllabic vowels instead. Verbs where the second radical is weak are called madsiṟud ʾemḵapud ("hollow verbs") because the weak consonants are converted to their vocalic counterparts: ⟨y w⟩ become /i u/ with ⟨h⟩ unaffected. An exception to this is in the case of gemination whereby they are fortified just like strengthened verbs. Lastly, verbs where the third radical is weak are called madsiṟud ʾeṗšašud ("cut verbs") because, like hollow verbs, the weak consonants are converted to their vocalic counterparts, thus making the verb end in a vowel.

Strengthened Verbs

w-d-d (to cover)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾeẇdaddu		to cover	ʾeẇdeddi		to be covered
Past Realis	nuwdad	nuwdadam	covered	niwded	niwdedam	was covered
Past Prog.	yowdad	yowdadam	was covering	yeẇded	yeẇdedam	was being covered
Past Irrealis	ćaẇdad	ćaẇdadam	would have covered	ćeẇded	ćeẇdedam	would have been covered
Present Realis	wudad	wuddam	cover	waded	waddam	is covered
Present Prog.	huwdad	huwdadam	is covering	hiwded	hiwdedam	is being covered
Present Irrealis	ẕuwdad	ẕuwdadam	would cover	ẕiwded	ẕiwdedam	would be covered
Future Realis	ṇtaẇdad	ṇtaẇdadam	will cover	ṇteẇded	ṇteẇdedam	will be covered
Future Irrealis	ʾaẇdad	ʾaẇdadam	might cover	ʾeẇded	ʾeẇdedam	might be covered

Hollow Verbs

t-y-l (to destroy)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾetyallu		to destroy	ʾetyelli		to be destroyed
Past Realis	nutil	nutilam	destroyed	nitil	nitilam	was destroyed
Past Prog.	yotil	yotilam	was destroying	yetil	yetilam	was being destroyed
Past Irrealis	ćatil	ćatilam	would have destroyed	ćetil	ćetilam	would have been destroyed
Present Realis	til	tilam	destroy	til	tilam	is destroyed
Present Prog.	hutil	hutilam	is destroying	hitil	hitilam	is being destroyed
Present Irrealis	ẕutil	ẕutilam	would destroy	ẕitil	ẕitilam	would be destroyed
Future Realis	ṇtatil	ṇtatilam	will destroy	ṇtetil	ṇtetilam	will be destroyed
Future Irrealis	ʾatil	ʾatilam	might destroy	ʾetil	ʾetilam	might be destroyed

Cut Verbs

n-š-y (to want, to desire)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾenšayyu		to want	ʾenšeyyi		to be wanted
Past Realis	nunši	nunšayam	wanted	ninši	ninšeyam	was wanted
Past Prog.	yonši	yonšayam	was wanting	yenši	yenšeyam	was being wanted
Past Irrealis	ćanši	ćanšayam	would have wanted	ćenši	ćenšeyam	would have been wanted
Present Realis	nuši	nušyam	want	naši	našyam	is wanted
Present Prog.	hunši	hunšayam	is wanting	hinši	hinšeyam	is being wanted
Present Irrealis	ẕunši	ẕunšayam	would want	ẕinši	ẕinšeyam	would be wanted
Future Realis	ṇtanši	ṇtanšayam	will want	ṇtenši	ṇtenšeyam	will be wanted
Future Irrealis	ʾanši	ʾanšayam	might want	ʾenši	ʾenšeyam	might be wanted

Vrkhazhian as a secundative language

Unlike most languages, Vrkhazhian has a secundative alignment with regards to ditransitive verbs. This means that the recipient of a verb is treated like the patient of a transitive verb rather than the theme. The theme is indicated with the clitic sa-, which changes to su- before bilabial consonants and s- before a glottal stop, which is phonetically omitted word-initially.

Below is an example, in the active voice:

ṛ-ʾUlda ṛ-tuhazi pulal su-bedu.

ṛ-ʾUlda	ṛ-tuhazi	pulal	su-bedu
DEF-soldier-NOM.FEM.SG	DEF-man-ACC.MASC.SG	give\ACT.PRES.SG	with=book-NEUT.SG

"The guard gives the man [with] a book."

In the passive voice, the recipient is promoted to subject, rather than the theme:

Palel su-bedu ṛ-hazi ʾim ṛ-ʾulda.

Palel	su-bedu	ṛ-hazi	ʾim	ṛ-ʾalkada
give\PASS.PRES.SG	with=book-NEUT.SG	DEF-man-NOM.MASC.SG	by	DEF-soldier-FEM.SG

"The man is given [with] a book by the guard."