Siye Nominal Morphology

Cases

Core Cases

Core Cases	Case Number	Case Suffix	Notes
Nominative	1, 1a	-0	subject of intransitive verb
			subject of transitive verb
			subject of ditransitive verb
			direct address (pre-2229)
Absolutive	1, 1b	-0	subject of intransitive verb
			direct object of transitive verb
			direct object of ditransitive verb
			direct address (pre-2229)
			direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
			indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
Accusative	2	-a, -ha, -0	direct object of transitive verb
			direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
			indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
Ergative	3	-ya, -na	subject of transitive verb
			subject of ditransitive verb
Vocative	20	-hi, -0	direct address (post-2229)

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

mu 'some(one, thing)'

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is not a pronoun or a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of -0 surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

oya 'eagle'

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to the depredations of vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive. The issue of Siye personal names and 'interior capitalization' will be addressed elsewhere in this document.

Kumayamha 'Chief(ACC)' Kutu 'Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)'

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is not a pronoun or a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

kumayamna 'the chief (ERG)' kutuya 'the chief (ERG) (archaic)'

Cases authorized 2229

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable.

kutummhi 'o priest!'

leyake-0 'o boy!'

Peripheral Cases

Genitive Cases	Case Number	Case Suffix	Notes
Genitive	4	-ne, (etym.) -e	alienable possession
			accidental characteristic
			origin
			postpositional case
			postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
			postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
Possessive	5	-me	inalienable possession
			essential characteristic
			origin
			postpositional case
			postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e.

siline 'of the house'

silisone 'of the two houses'

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. The Possessive Case, until recently, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role.

silime 'of the house'

silisome 'of the two houses' (formerly silimeso)

Locative Cases	Case Number	Case Suffix	Notes
Ablative	6	-sum	motion away from
			motion out of (pre-2192)
			origin of a person
			reason (pre-2217)
Locative	7	-kem	location
			inside (pre-2192)
			transferred object
			price of transferred object
			postpositional case
Allative-Dative	8	-su	towards
			into (pre-2192)
			inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
			inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
Dative-Benefactive	9	-tu	benefactive
			animate or intimate possession
			animate indirect object of transitive clause
			animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

sakikemhusum 'away from the river'

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

neme lusilinekem 'at the border (end) of the city'

lupatekem pempesum 'from beyond the mountain'

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb of the Causative Construction clause is in the perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

lusilikesu 'towards the village'

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb of the Causative Construction clause is in the perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

layeke lemetu 'for my sister'

Comitative Cases	Case Number	Case Suffix	Notes
Instrumental	10	-ki	inanimate instrument
			direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
			adverbial elaboration
Comitative	13	-ni	accompaniment 'with'
			nominal 'and'

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; therefore it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb of the clause is in the perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

koki 'by hand; manually'

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m.

leyake layekeni isuputuma 'the boy walks with the girl'

Adverbial Cases	Case Number	Case Suffix	Notes
Adverbial	11	-ku	forms adverbs
Equative	12	-pu	predicate
			direct address (very rare)

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary converbal suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary converbal suffix.

um miku isuputuma 'the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)

um misoku isuputuma 'the man walks forward (on two feet)'

kewim mikeku isuputuma 'the Martian walks forward (on four feet)

umo miloku isuputuma 'the spider walks forward (on many feet)

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement.

um me kutumpu ikimpukima 'that man is a hutsu-priest'

Cases Authorized 2192

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

New Locative Cases	Case Number	Case Suffix	Notes
Animate Instrumental	14	-neki	animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
Elative	15	-nemsum	out of a location (post-2192)
Inessive	16	-nemkim	inside a location (post-2192)
Illative	17	-nemsum	out of a location (post-2192)

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

Le ineki liyo elelipunama.

le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma

1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-DIR.UP-IMPFV.POS.REALIS

I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location.

Laye silinemsum itupusuna.

laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na

woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ALL-PFV.POS.REALIS

The woman came out of the house.

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location.

Laye silinemkim ikupununa.

laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma

woman-ABS house-ILL 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-DIR.DOWN-IMPFV.POS.REALIS

The woman came out of the house.

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location.

Laye silinemtu itupusuna.

laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na

woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS

The woman went to the house.

Cases Authorized 2200

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

New Comitative Cases	Case Number	Case Suffix	Notes
Abessive	14	-neto	without (post-2200)

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /-to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

Liyoneto lelilulununa.

liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma

food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-DIR-IMPFV.POS.REALIS

Without food, we will die.

Cases Authorized 2217

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

Comitative Cases	Case Number	Case Suffix	Notes
Causative	19	-neya	because of (post-2217)

19. CAUSATIVE (CAUS): -neya

The Causative Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars have been examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.

nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 I-I-tu-ke-sum-nu-na

money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-DIR.SUB-PFV.POS.REALIS

The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the Siye-speakers because of (their) money.

Complex cases

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to correct immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended to say.

Complex Cases	Case Number	Case Suffix	Contraction of
Accusi-genitive (AGEN)	1	-na	-ne-a
Accusi-possessive (APOSS)	2	-ma	-me-a
Accusi-ablative (AABL)	3	-sumha	-sum-ha
Accusi-locative (ALOC)	4	-kemha	-kem-a
Accusi-allative (AALL)	5	-su, -sa	-su-a
Accusi-dative (ADAT)	6	-tu, -sa, -ta	-tu-a
Accusi-instrumental (AINS)	7	-ki, -sa	-ki-a
Accusi-adverbial (AADV)	8	-ku	-ku-a
Accusi-equative (AEQ)	9	-pu	-pu-a
Accusi-comitative (ACOM)	10	-na	-ni-a

Notes

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na and the APOSS ending -ma as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore choose -na to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is abosrbed, the verb remains transitive ad is treated as though it had a covert applicative.

-sa: The various 'cases' of -sa (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists, therefore, support, unofficially, of course, the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners ho have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

Grammatical Number

Grammatical Number	Name	Abbreviation	Ending
	Null	NL	-ku, -hu, -u
	Singular	SG	-0
	Dual	DU	-so
	Paucal	PAUC	-ke
	Plural	PL	-lo
	Pantic	PAN	-ka

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic.

tupiku sakike mekem imikukima. No birds swim in this pond.

yetamku etamkukima. No stones remain. "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

uku sakike mekem imipukima. A fish swims in this pond.

kamna 'a piece of cloth'

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

layekeso sakikem imisokima. A pair of girls walk by this pond.

wapomso 'the two merchants'

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima. A few fledglings swim in this pond.

olake 'the few eagles'

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous. Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima. Many fledglings swim in this pond.

kewimlo 'the many lions'

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima. All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.

Simayamka '(all) Siye-speakers'

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

Definiteness and Numeral Placement

Definiteness and Numeral Placement
Siye nouns are inherently definite.	tupiya	tupi-ya	bird-ERG	the bird
An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.	tupi tumna	tupi tum-na	bird INDEF-ERG	a bird
Adjectives follow the noun.	tupi tukiya	tupi tuki-ya	bird white-ERG	the white bird
Adjectives follow the noun.	tupi tuki tumna	tupi tuki tum-na	bird white INDEF-ERG	a white bird
The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition	tupi tuki mena	tupi tuki me-na	bird white DEF-ERG	this/that white bird
Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.	tum tupiya	tum tupi-ya	one bird-ERG	one bird
	so tupisoya	so tupi-so-ya	two bird-DU-ERG	two birds
	ko tupiloya	ko tupi-lo-ya	five bird-PL-ERG	five birds
	ko tupilo mena	ko tupi-lo me-na	five bird-PL DEF-ERG	those five birds

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns	Nominative	Accusative	Notes
1st	le	la
2nd	pe	sa	/pe/ and /sa/ derive from different pronominal roots.
3rd animate	i	ya	/i/ may derive from a deictic particle which supplanted /e/ as the primary 3rd person form.
3rd inanimate (aka 4th)	e	a	/i/ may derive from a deictic particle which supplanted /e/ as the primary 3rd person form.
3rd person indefinite (INDEF)	mu	mu	/mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/.

Non-standard pronouns

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

Personal Pronouns	Subject	Object	Where Used	Other Notes
2nd person	peya	pe	Far Eastern Province, Lake	/pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
3rd person animate	iya	i	Eastern Provinces, Lake	/i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
3rd person inanimate	eya	e	Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake	non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
3rd person inanimate	aya	a	Central Province innovation	This is an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it is spreading rapidly.
3rd person indefinite	muna	mu	Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake	Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as independent pronouns, not as verb suffixes. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground.

Portmanteau Pronouns

Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions:

1. The verb of the clause is transitive

2. The verbal aspect is imperfective

3. Neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun.

4. The direct object is fourth person.

5. The number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject.

6. The number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

Palo epekosoyammumo?

Can you two see them?

palo-a epekosoyammumo

pa -lo-a e-pe-ko -so-yam -ma -umo

2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IMPFV-DU-INCPTV-IMPFV.POS.MOD-Q

Yaka elipulunama

He won't eat them all.

ya -ka -a e-i-li-pu -ulu-na -ma

3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-DIR.SUPER-IMPFV.POS.MOD

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

Yaka eyokalunanu.

He did not eat them all.

ya -ka -a e-i-yo -ka -ulu-na -nu

3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-DIR.SUPER-PFV.NEG.MOD

Yakaka eyokalunamu

The few of them won't eat all of them.

ya -ke -a-ka -a e-i-yo -ka -ulu-na -mu

3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-DIR.SUPER-IMPFV.POS.MOD

Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions:

1. The verb of the clause is ditransitive

2. The aspect of the verb is imperfective

3. Neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns.

4. The causee is fourth person.

5. The number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient.

6. The number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions:

1. The verb of the clause is ditransitive.

2. The aspect of the verb is perfective.

3. Neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns.

4. The recipient is fourth person.

5. The number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee.

6. The number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

7. The number of the causor is singular.

Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.

-memtu: Animate. Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal. /kutummemtu/ 'apprentice of a hutsung-priest'

-memkim: Inanimate. Indicates the interior of a place. /silimemkim/ 'room'

-memsum: Animate. Indicates a lineage. /Kikamemsum/ 'from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries).

-meki: Animate. Indicates an animate agent. /a(tom)meki/ 'merchant'.

-meto: Adjective. Indicates a living being lacking something one would expect one to have. /isometo/ 'blind'/ /imeto/ 'one-eye'. The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.