Hudío Grammar

Grammar

2.0 General Notes

• 2.0.1 In this study the Latin alphabet is used as it is too difficult to type the Hebrew letters.
• 2.0.2 Text in blue describes a Spanish influence.
• 2.0.3 Sentence order is subject, verb, (indirect object pronoun), direct object, (indirect object noun), other elements. (after the Spanish word order)

2.1 Stress

• 2.1.1 Most words are accented on the ultimate syllable.
• 2.1.2 A few words are accented on the penultimate syllable. These words are indicated by an acute accent on the vowel in the Latin transliteration, e.g., mélex, king.

2.2 The Verb

• 2.2.1 Huðio has reduced the many type of verbs in Biblical Hebrew to four. These are the kaþav, ẋam, maṡa and napal forms. All other BH verbs have been subsumed into these four types.

The following chart shows into which of the four types the others have been subsumed.

	kaþav	ẋam	maṡa	napal
guttural	baẋar
guttural	baẋar
identical 2 & 3 roots	sabab

• 2.2.1 The verb has only two numbers, singular and plural.
• 2.2.2 Most verbs consist of a three-consonant stem to which vowels are added to specify meaning.
• 2.2.3 The verb agrees in person and number with its subject. The personal pronoun may be used for emphasis.
• 2.2.4 The verb is negated with lo placed immediately before the verb.
• 2.2.5 The many types of verbal inflection of Hebrew have been reduced in Hudio, most reduced to the CaCaC form of the perfect verb, e.g., kaþab, wrote, have written. This form is the lemma. Traditionally, the conjugation paradigm is given in the order 3rd, 2nd, and 1st persons.

person	singular	plural
3rd	kaþav sabab	kaþvu sabăbu
2nd	kaþávta sabăvta	kaþávtem sabăvtem
1st	kaþávti sabăvti	kaþávnu sabăvnu

• 2.2.6 A few verbs have biconsonantal stems. They are conjugated as follows:

3rd singular	ẋam	baä
3rd plural	ẋámu	báäu
2nd singular	ẋámþa	báþa
2nd plural	ẋámþem	báþem
1st singular	ẋámþi	báti
1st plural	ẋámnu	bánu

• 2.2.7 Verbs that end in a vowel, e.g., maṡa, found, are conjugated as follows:

person	singular	plural
3rd	maṡa	maṡu
2nd	maṡáþa	maṡáþem
1st	maṡáþi	maṡánu

• 2.2.8 There are verbs with the form CaCeC which are stative verbs for the most part, e.g., kaveð, he is/was/has become heavy; zaẋen, he is/was/has become old. These verbs are conjugated as follows (note the change of the second vowel to a):

person	singular	plural
3rd	kaveð	kavdu
2nd	kaváðta	kaváðtem
1st	kaváðti	kaváðnu

Irregular verbs III-He: banah

• 2.2.9 CoCeC is the form of the active participle, e.g., koþev, writing. This form is an adjective in function, e.g., ha-iš ha-koþev, the writing man or the man who is writing; ha-iš koþev, the man is writing.
• 2.2.10 In order to state that something exists, the word yeš is used, e.g., iš yeš, there is a man; ănašim yeš, there are men. The negative expression uses en, e.g., iš en, there is no man.
  • This construction is used to express possession, e.g., késef en lăiš, the man has no silver.
• 2.2.11 Although a juxtaposed noun and articleless adjective may constitute a predication, it is more common to use the verb haya', e.g., ha-iš haya tov, the man was good. (after the Spanish use of 'ser' and 'estar).
• 2.2.12 With the preposition lă, the verb means become, e.g., dawið haya lămélex tov, David became a good king.
• 2.2.13 The imperfect tense adds a prefix to the inflected forms. The imperfect has two meanings, the future and habitual or customary action.

perfect	3rd sing	3rd plural	2nd sing	2nd plural	1st sing	1st plural
kaþav	yixtov	yixtovun	tixtov	tixtovun	extov	nixtob
ẋam	yiẋam	yiẋamun	tiẋam	tiẋamun	eẋam	niẋam
maṡa	yimṡa	yimṡaun	timṡa	timṡaun	emṡan	nimṡan
napal (n is assimilated)	yipol	yipolun	tipol	tipolun	epol	nipol

• 2.2.14 The imperative is formed by changing the first vowel of the perfect to ă.
  • kaþav, kăþav
  • maṡa, măṡa
  • kaveð, kăveð
  • napal, năpal
  • ẋam, ẋam
• 2.2.14 The infinitive is formed by changing the first vowel of the perfect to ă and the second to o. If a suffix is added the first vowel is o and the second is deleted.
  • kaþav, kăþov, koþbi.
  • maṡa măṡo, moṡbi.
  • kaveð, kăvoð, kovdi
  • napal, năpol, nofli
• 2.2.15 The infinitive has both nominal and verbal functions. As a verb it may have subjects, objects, and other verbal adjuncts.
• 2.2.16 The infinitive is used with lă to indicate the complement of a verb, e.g., bánu lăšmo, they came to hear.
  • 'haya + ă + the infinitive expresses to be about to... or to be compelled to..., e.g., ha-šámar haya lăsgar, the gate was about to close.
  • äal + noun/pronoun + lă + the infinitive expresses obligation or responsibility, e.g., alay lămăṡo eþ-hu, I must find him.
  • en + lă + the infinitive expresses possibility or permission, e.g., en lăbo, entering is forbidden.
• 2.2.17 The infinitive is negated with lo.
• 2.2.18 The passive participle has the pattern CaCuC, e.g., kaþub, written.

2.3 The Noun

• 2.3.1 The Huðío noun belongs to one of two classes, masculine and feminine. In general, those nouns ending in -a are feminine and those ending in a consonant are masculine, although there are some exceptions.
• 2.3.2 There are two numbers, singular and plural. The singular is unmarked. The plural endings are –oþ for feminine nouns and –im for masculine nouns, e.g., mélex (king), mălaxim; malka (queen), malkoþ.
• 2.3.3 If the noun is disyllabic and the first syllable contains an a or e, then the vowel of the first syllable is reduced and the second vowel becomes a, e.g., davar, (word), dăvarim; book – séfer, săfarim.
• 2.3.4 A few nouns have irregular plurals: man – iš, ănašim; woman – iša, našim; city – ir, ărim; house - báyit, baþim.
• 2.3.5 The Direct Object.
  • 2.3.5.1 When the direct object of a verb is a definite noun or is a proper name, it is preceded by the object marker eþ-, e.g., ha-am ohev eþ-Dawið, the people love David.
  • 2.3.5.2 If the object is indefinite, it is not marked, e.g., ha-iš koþev davar, the man is writing a word.
• 2.3.6 Indirect object. The indirect object is formed with the preposition lă.
• 2.3.7 The suffix -a added to both proper and common nouns indicates motion toward, the latter with or without the article. It is never stressed.

2.4 The Construct Chain

• 2.4.1 The juxtaposition of two nouns serves to mark a modifying relationship. The first noun in such a chain is said to be in a construct state, e.g., ẋol ha-navi, the voice of the prophet.
• 2.4.2 A different form of the construct noun is preserved in bisyllabic nouns with unstressed a or e in the first syllable, which changes to ă, e.g., dăvar ha-mélex, the word of the king; but ná'ar ha-mélex, the attendant of the king.
• 2.4.3 Only the final noun may have the definite article e.g., ẋol ha-navi, the voice of the prophet, contrasts with ẋol navi, a voice of a prophet.
• 2.4.4 To express "a...of the..." the preposition lă is used, e.g., davar la-mélex, a word of the king.
• 2.4.5 An adjective may follow either noun of the chain, e.g., dăvar ha-mélex ha-tov, the word of the good king; dăvar ha-tov ha-mélex, the good word of the king.
• 2.4.6 Nouns in -a replace this ending with -aþ, e.g., malkaþ ha-'áreṡ, the queen of the land.
• 2.4.7 Plural nouns in -im change the ending to -e, e.g., yamim, seas, yame.

• 2.4.8 Irregular Construct Forms

house	bayiþ	beþ
death	maweþ	moþ
woman	iša	éšeþ

2.5 Adjective

• 2.5.1 Adjectives agree in class and number with the nouns they modify.
• 2.5.2 Monosyllabic adjectives have the following forms.

	singular	plural
masculine	tov (good)	tovim
feminine	tov	tovoþ

• 2.5.3 Disyllabic adjectives have the following forms.

	singular	plural
masculine	'gaðol (great)'	găðolim
feminine	gaðol	găðoloþ

• 2.5.4 Adjectives ending in –e have the following forms.

	singular	plural
masculine	yafe (beautiful)	yafim	feminine	yafe	yafoþ

• 2.5.5 The attributive adjective follows the noun and agrees with it in class and number, e.g., iš tov, a good man; ha-iš tov, the good man; ănašim tovim, good men; ha-ănašim tovim, the good men. (after the Spanish postnominal adjective)
• 2.5.6. A juxtaposed noun and articleless adjective, before or after the noun may constitute a predication, e.g., tov ha-iš , ha-iš tov, the man is good.
• 2.5.7. An adjective may be modified by a prepositional phrase in the predicate, e.g., ha-ir haya la-'am tova, the city is good for the people.
• 2.5.8. Adjectives may be used as nouns in two ways.
  • 2.5.8.1 The adjective with the definite article may mean "the one who is...", e.g., wise – haxam; the wise one – hă-haxam.
  • 2.5.8.2 The singular form may be used as an abstract noun with the addition of -a, e.g., evil - hara; wickedness - hara'a.
• 2.5.9 The Adjective kol, all, has the meaning "each, every, all, the whole". It is not inflected and precedes the noun it modifies, e.g., kol yom each day, every day; kol ha-yom, all day, the whole day; kol ha yamim, all the days.
• 2.5.10 The expression kol šer means "everything that/which". When the object of a verb it is preceded by eŧ-.

natan lo eŧ-kol šer qana. He gave him everthing that he had acquired.

• 2.5.11 With an adjective kol has an indefinite pronominal sense, e.g., kol ẋađaš, anything new.
• 2.5.12 To express the comparative the preposition min- is used before the noun which is the basis of comparison.

ha-iš haya haxam min-ha-na'ar. The man is wiser than the boy.

• • 2.5.12.1 This construction is also used to express "too...for...".

ha'avoða haya kaša min-ha-iš. The work is too hard for the man.

• 2.5.13. The demonstrative adjective stands last in a series of adjectives, e.g., ha-iš ha-tov ha-ze, this good man.

	singular	plural
this	ze	éle
that	hi	héna

2.6 The Definite Article

• 2.6.1. The definite article is ha- and is prefixed to the noun, e.g., word – davar, ha-davar; king - mélex, ha-mélex.
  • 2.6.1.2 If the noun begins with ha- or ẋa-, then the definite article is hă, e.g., hăhar, mountain; hăharim, mountains.
• 2.6.2. The noun with the definite article is also used to express the vocative, e.g., ha-mélex, O king!
• 2.6.3. There is no indefinite article.

2.7 The Numbers

• 2.7.1 The numbers have become indeclinable (after the Spanish pattern) and precede the noun.

2.8 The Pronoun

2.8.1 The Personal Pronouns

person	singular	plural
1st	ăni	ănánu
2nd	ăþa	ăþem
3rd	hu	hem

• • 2.8.1.1 These forms are used as the subjects of verbs, mostly of non-verbal sentences, ăni tov, I am good.
  • 2.8.1.2 These forms are used as the direct object, e.g., ăni ohev eþ-hu, I love him.
  • 2.8.1.3 When it is the object of a preposition, a personal pronoun is suffixed to the preposition, e.g., with lă,

person	singular	plural
1st	li	lánu
2nd	lăk	lăkem
3rd	lăhu	lăhem

• • 2.8.1.4 The personal pronoun with min, from, is declined differently.

person	singular	plural
1st	minéni	minénu
2nd	minéka	minékem
3rd	minéhu	minéhem

2.8.2 The Demonstrative Pronoun

• 2.8.2.1 The demonstrative adjective without the definite article is used as the demonstrative pronoun, e.g., ze haya ha-iš, this is the man; éle haya ha-dăvarim, these are the words.

2.8.3 The Interrogative Pronoun

• 2.7.3.1 The interrogative pronouns mi, who, and ma, what, are not inflected for number of class.

2.8.4 The Possessive Pronoun

• 2.8.4.1 Pronominal possession is indicated by suffixing a form of the personal pronoun to the singular noun.

person	singular	plural
1st	susi my horse	susénu our horse
2nd	suska your horse	suskem your horse
3rd	suso his/her horse	susam their horse

• 2.8.4.2 The usual vowel reduction takes place in disyllabic nouns.

person	singular	plural
1st	dăvari my horse	dăvarénu our horse
2nd	dăvarka your horse	dăvarkem your horse
3rd	dăvaro his/her horse	dăvaram their horse

• 2.8.4.3 Feminine nouns in -a have -aþ before the pronominal endings.

person	singular	plural
1st	toraþi my law	toraþénu our law
2nd	toraþka your law	toraþkem your law
3rd	toraþo his/her law	toraþam their law

2.8.4.4 In the plural the nouns are declined as follows.

person	singular	plural
1st	susay my horse	susenu our horse
2nd	suseka your horse	susekem your horse
3rd	susaw his/her horse	susam their horse

• 2.8.4.5 A noun with a pronominal suffix is definite, therefore
  • 2.8.4.5.1 a modifying adjective has the definite article, e.g., susi hă-ẋazak, my strong horse; dăvaraw ha-tovim, his good words.
  • 2.8.4.5.2 when the direct object of a verb, eþ- is required, e.g., ra'iþi eþ-suso.
  • 2.8.4.5.3 But eþ- is omitted when reference is made to a part of the body, e.g., šalaẋ yaðo, he put forth his hand.

person	singular	plural
1st	toroþay my law	toroþénu our law
2nd	toroþeka your law	toroþekem your law
3rd	toroþaw his/her law	toroþam their law

2.9 The Preposition

• 2.9.1 There are three types of prepositions.
• 2.9.2 The first type consists of the three prepositions bă (in), lă (to), and kă (like) that are prefixed to the noun, e.g., lămélex, to a king.
  • 2.9.2.1 When the noun is determined by the definite article, the two combine into a single syllable retaining the vowel of the article, e.g., lamélex, to the king. These words are proclitic and are pronounced as the first syllable of the word.
  • 2.9.2.2 If the noun begins with yă-, these prepositions become bi, li, and ki and replace the yă-, e.g., yărušaláim, Jerusalem; birušaláim, to Jerusalem.
  • 2.9.2.3 If the noun begins with Că-, these prepositions become bi, li, and ki and the ă is dropped, e.g., šămuel, Samuel; kišmuel, like Samuel.
  • 2.9.2.4 In all other cases these prepositions become ba, la, and ka and the ă is dropped, e.g., ẋalom, dream; baẋalom, in a dream.
• 2.9.3. The second type consists of those joined to the noun with a hyphen (maxaf). The most common are el- (to, towards), al- (on, upon), and min- (from), e.g., min-ha-bayiþ, from the house.
• 2.9.4. The third and largest group consists of prepositions written as separate words, e.g., éṡel ha-bayiþ, near the house.
• 2.9.5. A juxtaposed noun and prepositional phrase (or local adverb) constitute a predication, e.g., ha-na'ar babayiþ , the young man is in the house.
• 2.9.6 The noun panim face, used in the plural, forms a part of several prepositions:
  • lifne, in the presence of, before; lifne ha-mélex, before the king.
  • mifne, from the presence of, from before, because of; mifne milẋama, because of the war.
  • al-fne, on the surface of, up against; al-fne ha-ẋir, up against the wall.
• 2.9.7 There are other prepositions compounded from nouns:
  • al-dăbar because of, al-dăbar ézeri, because of my help.
  • bătok, in the midst of; bătoko, in the midst of it.

2.10 The Adverb

• 2.10.1 The suffix –a added to a noun, proper or common, indicates motion toward, with or without the article, e.g., har, mountain; ha-hára, to the mountain.

2.11 The Conjunction

• 2.11.1 The coordinating conjunction "and" is u, and is prefixed to the noun, e.g., u-bayiþ, and a house.

2.12 The Interrogative

• 2.12.1 Any sentence may be converted into a question by prefixing hă- to the first word.

hă-tova haya ha-'áreṡ. Is the land good?

2.13 The Relative Construction

• 2.13.1 A relative clauses is expressed with šer.

ha-kohen šer kaþav eþ-ha-séfer. The priest who wrote the book.

• 2.13.2. When the relative construction involves a preposition, šer is combined with the preposition as if it were a noun. e.g. lašer, to whom/which; min-šer, from whom/which; éṡel šer, near whom/which. (after the Spanish prepositional phrase)