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Vrkhazhian (ʾAšdu Yat-Vṛḵaž) is a Western Hašakam language that is spoken by the Vrkhazhi who live in [[Vṛḵaẕ|the Empire of Yat-Vṛḵaž]]. The earliest form of this language, known as Classical Vrkhazhian, was spoken as early as 950 years ago.
#REDIRECT [[Vrkhazhian]]
{{infobox
|image=Flag-Vrkhazh.png
|size=350px
|bg=#6BB6B6
|name=Vrkhazhian
|native=ʾAšdu Yat-Vṛḵaž
|pronounce=/ʔaçˈdu jatβɹ̩ˈxaʝ/
|in=Vrkhazh (Yat-Vṛḵaẕ)
|script=ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam
|tree=Haṣákaṃ Languages
:Himoshian
::Taksheyut 
:::Pre-Vrkhazhian
::::Classical Vrkhazhian
:::::'''Modern Vrkhazhian'''
|morph=highly fusional, weakly agglutinative
|ms=nominative-accusative
|wo=SOV/VSX
|creator=[[User:Ahzoh|Malcolm G. Holborne]]}}
 
 
==History==
===Dialects===
Vrkhazhian has two major dialects and several minor dialects. The area of the two dialects are divided by two distinct sides; the north-eastern portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Mukhebic, while the south-western portion of Vrkhazh contains the majority of speakers of Uzerian. The numerous smaller dialects are spread in and around these two halves with varying degrees of density.
 
The table below lists the two major dialects:
 
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Dialects of Vrkhazhian
|-
! Dialect
! Location
|-
| Uzerian
| South-West Vrkhazh (originating from the city of ʾUzer)
|-
| Mukhebic
| North-East Vrkhazh (originating from the city of Muḵeb)
|}
 
Mukhebic is considered the dialect of business and trading, and originated from Mukheb, and along with Qazhd, make up the Pillars of Trade and Commerce. Uzerian is considered the dialect of politics and military affairs, originating from Uzer, the Capital City where the Emperor or Empress resides. When conducting business and trading with others, it is expected to communicate in the Mukhebic dialect while the Uzerian dialect is used for everything involving politics and the military. The knowledge and fluency of both dialects is a must for any meaningful life in the Vrkhazhian Empire.
 
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
The table below shows the 37 consonant phonemes found in the Uzerian dialect of Vrkhazhian:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Vrkhazhian Consonantal Phonemes
|-
! colspan=2|
!Bilabial
!Alveolar
!Palatal
!Velar
!Uvular
!Glottal
|-
!colspan=2|Nasal
| '''m''' [m]
| '''n''' [n]
|
|
| '''ṉ''' [ɴ]
|
|-
!rowspan=3|Stop
!<small>Light</small>
| '''p͛''' [ʰp]
| '''t͛''' [ʰt]
|
| '''k͛''' [ʰk]
| '''q͛''' [ʰq]
|
|-
!<small>Plain</small>
| '''p''' [p] '''b''' [b]
| '''t''' [t] '''d''' [d]
|
| '''k''' [k] '''g''' [g]
| '''q''' [q]
| '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
|-
!<small>Dark</small>
| '''ṗ''' [pʶ]
| '''ṭ''' [tʶ]
|
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Affricate
|
| '''ẕ''' [t͡s]
| '''č''' [c͡ç] '''j''' [ɟ͡ʝ]
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Fricative
| '''f''' [ɸ] '''v''' [β]
| '''s''' [s] '''z''' [z]
| '''š''' [ç] '''ž''' [ʝ]
| '''ḵ''' [x] '''ḡ''' [ɣ]
| '''ḥ''' [χ]
| '''h''' [h]
|-
!colspan=2|Approximant
|
| '''r''' [ɹ]
| '''y''' [j]
| '''w''' [w]
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Trill
|
| '''ř''' [r]
|
|
| '''ṟ''' [ʀ~ʁ]
|
|-
!colspan=2|Lateral Approximant
|
| '''l''' [l]
|
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Lateral Fricative
|
|
|| '''ś''' [ʎ̝̊]
|
|
|
|-
|}
<div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 0.33em">''Where consonants appear in pairs, the left is voiceless and the right is voiced.</div>
 
 
The table below shows the 38 consonant phonemes found in the Mukhebic Dialect of Vrkhazhian:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Vrkhazhian Consonantal Phonemes
|-
! colspan=2|
!Bilabial
!Alveolar
!Palatal
!Velar
!Uvular
!Glottal
|-
!colspan=2|Nasal
| '''m''' [m]
| '''n''' [n]
|
|
| '''ṉ''' [ɴ]
|
|-
!rowspan=2|Stop
!<small>Plain</small>
| '''p''' [p] '''b''' [b]
| '''t''' [t] '''d''' [d]
|
| '''k''' [k] '''g''' [g]
| '''q''' [q]
| '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
|-
!<small>Prenasal</small>
| '''ḅ''' [ᵐb]
| '''ḍ''' [ⁿd]
|
| '''ġ''' [ᵑg]
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Affricate
|
| '''ṯ''' [t͡s] '''ḏ'''[d͡z]
| '''č''' [c͡ç] '''j''' [ɟ͡ʝ]
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|Fricative
!<small>Plain</small>
| '''f''' [f] '''v''' [v]
| '''s''' [s] '''z''' [z]
| '''š''' [ç] '''ž''' [ʝ]
| '''ḵ''' [x] '''ḡ''' [ɣ]
| '''ḥ''' [χ]
| '''h''' [h]
|-
!<small>Prenasal</small>
| '''ṿ''' [ᶬv]
| '''ẓ''' [ⁿz]
| '''ẓ̌''' [ᶮʝ]
| '''ḡ̇''' [ᵑɣ]
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Approximant
|
| '''r''' [ɹ]
| '''y''' [j]
| '''w''' [w]
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Trill
|
| '''ř''' [r]
|
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Lateral Approximant
|
| '''l''' [l]
|
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|Lateral Fricative
|
|
|| '''ś''' [ʎ̝̊]
|
|
|
|-
|}
<div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 0.33em">''Where consonants appear in pairs, the left is voiceless and the right is voiced.</div>
 
===Vowels===
{| class="IPA" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:center; background:none;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
|style="padding-bottom:3px;"| &nbsp;
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Front'''
| style="width: 60px; word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- front'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Central'''
| style="width: 60px;word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- back'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Back'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close'''
| style="height: 210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position: relative;">[[File:Blank vowel trapezoid.svg|300px]]<div style="background:none; position:absolute; top:0; left:0;">
{| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none;"
|-
| style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none; font-size:120%;"|
 
<!-- CLOSE VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 4%; width: 1em; top: 2%; background: white;">'''i'''</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 91%; width: 1em; top: 2%; background: none;">'''u'''</div>
 
<!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 46%; width: 1em; top: 24%; background: none;">&nbsp;</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 74%; width: 1em; top: 16%; background: white;">
&nbsp;</div>
 
<!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 50%; width: 1em; top: 30%; background: none;">&nbsp;</div>
 
<!-- MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 22%; width: 1em; top: 43%%; background: white;">'''e̞'''</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 57%; width: 1em; top: 43%; background: white;">'''ə'''</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 91%; width: 1em; top: 43%; background: none;">'''o̞'''</div>
 
<!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 29%; width: 1em; top: 58%; background: none;">&nbsp;</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 57%; width: 1em; top: 58%; background: none;">&nbsp;</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 91%; width: 1em; top: 58%; background: none;">&nbsp;</div>
 
<!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 64%; width: 1em; top: 73%; background: none;">&nbsp;</div>
 
<!-- OPEN VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 44%; width: 1em; top: 86%; background: none;">&nbsp;</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 68%; width: 1em; top: 86%; background: white;">
'''a'''</div>
|}
</div></div>
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;'''Near-close'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close-mid'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Mid'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open-mid'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Near-open'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open'''
|}
<div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 0.33em">''The vowel phoneme /a/ is analyzed as being a continuum of open vowels ranging from front to back that are in free variation.</div>
 
{|class="wikitable article-table" style="text-align:center;"
|+Romanization of Vowel Phonemes
|-
!
! style="width: 40px; " |Front
! style="width: 40px; " |Central
! style="width: 40px; " |Back
|-
!Close
| '''i''' [i]
|
| '''u''' [u]
|-
!Mid
| '''e''' [e̞]
| '''ə''' [ə]
| '''o''' [o̞]
|-
!Open
|colspan="3"| '''a''' [a]
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Vrkhazhian Diphthongs
! IPA
! Letter
! Example
|-
|-
| ae̯
| aẏ
| '''eye''' , p'''ie'''
|-
|-
| ao̯
| aẇ
| c'''ow''', '''ou'''t
|-
|-
| ɛo̯
| eẇ
| m'''ayo'''naise
|-
|}
 
===Allophony===
Stops:
*The alveolar stop consonants /t d/ become [θ ð] in word-final positions after front vowels.
*The velar stop consonants /k g/ are assimilated into /q/ near /q ʰq ɴ χ/.
*The nasal consonants /n ɴ/ are analyzed as [n] before alveolar consonants, [ɲ] before palatal consonants, [ŋ] before velar consonants (including /w/), and [ɴ] before uvular consonants.
*The vowels /a i ə u/ are lowered to [ɑ e̞ ɐ o̞] if they occur after /q ʰq ɴ χ/.
 
===Syllable Structure===
The syllable structure of Vrkhazhian is analyzed as (C)C(V)(C)(C), where C stands for a consonant, V stands for a vowel. CV and CVC are most common syllable types in Vrkhazhian, while in contrast, C and CCVCC, are the rarest.
The consonants ⟨r m n⟩ also have syllabic counterparts /ɹ̩ m̩ n̩/ which are romanized as ⟨ṛ ṃ ṇ⟩.
 
Words cannot have a vowel hiatus, so an epenthetic /h/ is added between the two vowels.
 
====Onset====
The follow table lists the possible consonants that can occur as the onset:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Nasal:
:/m/, /n/, /ɴ/
|-
| Stop:
:/p/, /ʰp/, /pʶ/, /b/, /t/, /ʰt/, /tʶ/, /d/,
:/k/, /ʰk/, /g/, /q/, /ʰq/, /ʔ/
|-
|Stop plus Nasal:
:/dm/, /km/, /gm/, /qm/
|-
| Stop plus Stop:
:/pt/, /pʔ/, /bd/, /tp/, /tʔ/, /db/,
:/kp/, /kb/, /kt/, /kd/, /kʔ/, /gb/,
:/gd/, /gʔ/
|-
|Stop plus /j w/:
:/kj/, /gj/, /ʔj/
:/kw/, /gw/, /qw/, /ʔw/
|-
|Stop plus Fricative:
:/kɸ/, /gβ/, /kç/, /gʝ/
|-
|Stop plus Liquid:
:/pɹ/, /tɹ/, /kɹ/, /qɹ/
:/pr/, /br/, /kr/, /gr/, /qr/,
:/pʀ/, /tʀ/, /kʀ/, /qʀ/,
:/pl/, /ql/
|-
| Affricate:
:/t͡s/, /c͡ç/, /ɟ͡ʝ/
|-
| Fricative:
:/ɸ/, /β/, /s/, /z/, /ç/, /ʝ/, /x/, /ɣ/, /χ/, h/
|-
| Fricative plus Nasal:
:/sm/, /zm/, /sn/, /zn/
|-
| Fricative plus Stop:
:/zb/, /zg/, /xp/, /xt/, /ɣb/, /ɣd/
|-
| Fricative plus Affricate:
:/çc͡ç/, /ʝɟ͡ʝ/
|-
| Fricative plus Fricative:
:/sɸ/, /zβ/, /sx/, /zɣ/
|-
|Fricative plus /w/:
:/sw/, /zw/, /çw/, /ʝw/, /xw/, /ɣw/, /χw/
|-
|Fricative plus Liquid:
:/sɹ/, /zɹ/, /çɹ/, /ʝɹ/, /xɹ/, /ɣɹ/, /χɹ/,
:/ɸr/, /βr/, /xr/, /ɣr/, /χr/,
:/sʀ/, /zʀ/,
:/sl/, /zl/, /çl/, /ʝl/, /xl/, /ɣl/, /χl/
|-
| Approximant:
:/j/, /w/
|-
| Liquid:
:/ɹ/, /r/, /ʀ/, /l/, /ʎ̝̊/
|-
|}
 
====Nucleus====
Any of the vowels and diphthongs can appear in a syllable as well as the syllabic consonants /ɹ̩ m̩ n̩/
 
====Coda====
The following table lists the possible consonants that can occur as the coda:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Nasal:
:/m/, /n/, /ɴ/
|-
| Nasal plus Stop:
:/mt/, /nt/
|-
| Stop:
:/p/, /ʰp/, /pʶ/, /b/, /t/, /ʰt/, /tʶ/, /d/,
:/k/, /ʰk/, /g/, /q/, /ʰq/, /ʔ/
|-
| Stop plus Stop:
:/pt/, /kt/
|-
| Stop plus Fricative:
:/kɸ/, /kç/,
|-
| Affricate:
:/t͡s/, /c͡ç/, /ɟ͡ʝ/
|-
| Fricative:
:/ɸ/, /β/, /s/, /z/, /ç/, /ʝ/, /x/, /ɣ/, /χ/, h/
|-
| Fricative plus Stop:
:/çt/, /ʝd/, /xp/, /xt/, /xk/, /ɣb/, /ɣd/, /ɣg/
|-
| Fricative plus Affricate:
:/çc͡ç/, /ʝɟ͡ʝ/
|-
| Approximant:
:/j/, /w/
|-
| Liquid:
:/ɹ/, /r/, /ʀ/, /l/, /ʎ̝̊/
|-
|Liquid plus Stop:
:/ɹp/, /ɹb/, /ɹt/, /ɹd/, /ɹk/, /ɹg/, /ɹq/,
:/rp/, /rb/, /rt/, /rd/, /rk/, /rg/, /rq/,
:/ʀp/, /ʀb/, /ʀt/, /ʀd/, /ʀk/, /ʀg/, /ʀq/,
:/lp/, /lb/, /lt/, /ld/, /lk/, /lg/ /lq/
|-
|Liquid plus Fricative:
:/ɹɸ/, /ɹβ/, /ɹs/, /ɹz/, /ɹç/, /ɹʝ/, /ɹx/, /ɹɣ/,
:/rɸ/, /rβ/, /rç/, /rʝ/, /rx/, /rɣ/, /rχ/,
:/ls/, /lz/, /lç/, /lʝ/, /lx/, /lɣ/, /lχ/
|-
|}
 
===Stress===
Stress is penultimate if the last syllable is open, and ultimate if the last syllable is closed.
 
==Grammar==
===Morphology===
====Overview====
Vrkhazhian is a highly inflecting triconsonantal root language. Most roots consist of three consonants (triliteral), though there are many words that consist of two letter (biliteral) roots. Vrkhazhian also recognizes four- and five-letter roots, however, these are uncommon. Between and around these roots various infixes, suffixes, circumfixes and prefixes are used to carry grammatical functions or derive words.
 
====Nominal morphology====
Vrkhazhian has three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine and neuter.
These genders are strictly semantic, thus most nouns, such as inanimate objects, fall into the category of neuter.
 
Vrkhazhian has two numbers (singular and plural) and five cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, allative, and ablative).
The table below shows the declension of the noun ''ʾalkad-'' (soldier).
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Noun paradigm
!
! Noun (masc.) !! Noun (fem.) !! Noun (neut.)
|-
! Nominative singular
| ''ʾalkad-i'' || ''ʾalkad-a'' || ''ʾalkad-u''
|-
! Accusative singular
| ''t-ʾalkad-i'' || ''t-ʾalkad-a'' || ''t-ʾalkad-u''
|-
! Genitive singular
| ''ʾalkad-iẕ-i'' || ''ʾalkad-iẕ-a'' || ''ʾalkad-iẕ-u''
|-
! Allative singular
| ''ʾalkad-eč-i'' || ''ʾalkad-eč-a'' || ''ʾalkad-eč-u''
|-
! Ablative singular
| ''ʾalkad-af-i'' || ''ʾalkad-af-a'' || ''ʾalkad-af-u''
|-
! Nominative plural
| ''ʾalikd-il'' || ''ʾalikd-an'' || ''ʾalikd-ud''
|-
! Accusative plural
| ''t-ʾalikd-il'' || ''t-ʾalikd-an'' || ''t-ʾalikd-ud''
|-
! Genitive plural
| ''ʾalikd-iẕ-il'' || ''ʾalikd-iẕ-an'' || ''ʾalikd-iẕ-ud''
|-
! Allative plural
| ''ʾalikd-eč-il'' || ''ʾalikd-eč-an'' || ''ʾalikd-eč-ud''
|-
! Ablative plural
| ''ʾalikd-af-il'' || ''ʾalikd-af-an'' || ''ʾalikd-af-ud''
|-
|}
*The Nominative case marks the subject, or agent, of a verb
*The Accusative case marks the object, or patient, of a verb. It is denoted with the prefix "tu-/ta-/ti-" and shortened to "t-" before a glottal stop.
*The Allative case is used to indicate movement towards the marked noun while the Ablative case is used to denote movement away from the marked noun.
*The Genitive case is used to mark the possessor of an object such as "Mark" in the sentence "Mark's cat". Proper nouns such as people and places are not marked with a genitive suffix.
 
=====Construct state=====
Nouns in Vrkhazhian can also be placed in the construct state (status constructus), which is used in genitive constructions to mark the head noun (possessed noun), while the Genitive case is used to mark the dependent (modifying) noun or adjective. Nouns that that are not placed in the construct state are considered to remain in the governed state (status rectus), which is the default state of all nouns.
The table below shows the declensions of the noun ''ʾalikd-'' placed in the construct state:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Noun paradigm
!
! Noun (masc.) !! Noun (fem.) !! Noun (neut.)
|-
! Nominative singular
| ''ʾalkad'' || ''ʾalkad'' || ''ʾalkad''
|-
! Accusative singular
| ''t-ʾalkad'' || ''t-ʾalkad'' || ''t-ʾalkad''
|-
! Genitive singular
| ''ʾalkad-al'' || ''ʾalkad-al'' || ''ʾalkad-al''
|-
! Allative singular
| ''ʾalkad-ej'' || ''ʾalkad-ej'' || ''ʾalkad-ej''
|-
! Ablative singular
| ''ʾalkad-av'' || ''ʾalkad-av'' || ''ʾalkad-av''
|-
! Nominative plural
| ''ʾalikd-om'' || ''ʾalikd-om'' || ''ʾalikd-om''
|-
! Nominative plural
| ''t-ʾalikd-om'' || ''t-ʾalikd-om'' || ''t-ʾalikd-om''
|-
! Genitive plural
| ''ʾalikd-al-om'' || ''ʾalikd-al-om'' || ''ʾalikd-al-om''
|-
! Allative plural
| ''ʾalikd-ej-om'' || ''ʾalikd-ej-om'' || ''ʾalikd-ej-om''
|-
! Ablative plural
| ''ʾalikd-av-om'' || ''ʾalikd-av-om'' || ''ʾalikd-av-om''
|-
|}
 
Monosyllabic nouns are phonetically reduced to ʾaCC when they are placed in the construct state and can be inflected for gender in the singular like in its governed state. Examples of this are the nouns ''kaf'' (water) and ''šim'' (house) which, when placed in the construct state, are reduced to ''ʾakfu'' and ''ʾašmu''.
 
====Adjectival morphology====
Adjectives in Vrkhazhian are marked for gender and number in agreement with the noun they modify. The table below shows the declension of the roots '''d-n-n''' (to be heavy), and '''ḵ-r-m''' (to be white):
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective declension
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
|-
! Singular
| ''ʾednan-i'' || ''ʾednan-a'' || ''ʾednan-u''
|-
! Plural
| ''ʾednan-il'' || ''ʾednan-an'' || ''ʾednan-ud''
|-
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective declension
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
|-
! Singular
| ''ḵarram-i'' || ''ḵarram-a'' || ''ḵarram-u''
|-
! Plural
| ''ḵarram-il'' || ''ḵarram-an'' || ''ḵarram-ud''
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective declension - Positive Elative
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
|-
! Singular
| ''dandan-i'' || ''dandan-a'' || ''dandan-u''
|-
! Plural
| ''dandan-il'' || ''dandan-an'' || ''dandan-ud''
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective declension - Negative Elative
!
! Adjective (masc.) !! Adjective (fem.) !! Adjective (neut.)
|-
! Singular
| ''ḵarramin-i'' || ''ḵarramin-a'' || ''ḵarramin-u''
|-
! Plural
| ''ḵarramin-il'' || ''ḵarramin-an'' || ''ḵarramin-ud''
|-
|}
 
====Definite marking====
Vrkhazhian has a proclitic "ṛ-" that indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something already mentioned or uniquely specified. The clitic is attached to the noun and the adjective(s) that modify the noun.
 
====Verbal morphology====
Verbs in Vrkhazhian are conjugated for number (singular and plural), tense (infinitive, past simple, past progressive, present simple, present progressive, and future) and voice (active and passive)
 
=====Verb patterns=====
The table below shows the conjugation of the root '''č-d-n''' (to oppress) and '''m-n-š''' (to write):
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Verb Conjugations
!
! Active Singular !! Active Plural !! Translation !! Passive Singular !! Passive Plural !! Translation
|-
! Infinitive
| colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾečdannu'' || to oppress || colspan="2" Align="center" | ''ʾečdenni'' || to be oppressed
|-
! Past Simple
| ''nučdan'' || ''nučdanam'' || oppressed || ''ničden'' || ''ničdenam'' || was oppressed
|-
! Past Prog.
| ''yočdan'' || ''yočdanam'' || was oppressing || ''yečden'' || ''yečdenam'' || was being oppressed
|-
! Present Simple
| ''čudan'' || ''čudnam'' || oppress || ''čaden'' || ''čadnam'' || is oppressed
|-
! Present Prog.
| ''hučdan'' || ''hučdanam'' || is oppressing || ''hičden'' || ''hičdenam'' || is being oppressed
|-
! Future
| ''ʾačdan'' || ''ʾačdanam'' || will oppress || ''ʾičden'' || ''ʾičdenam'' || will be oppressed
|-
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Verb Conjugations
!
! Active Singular !! Active Plural !! Translation
|-
! Infinitive
| colspan="2" Align="center" | ''lomnaššu'' || to write to self
|-
! Past Simple
| ''nulmonaš'' || ''nulmonšam'' || wrote to self
|-
! Past Progressive
| ''yolmonaš'' || ''yolmonšam'' || was writing to self
|-
! Present Simple
| ''lomnaš'' || ''lomnašam'' || write to self
|-
! Present Progressive
| ''hulmonaš'' || ''hulmonšam'' || is writing to self
|-
! Future
| ''ʾalmonaš'' || ''ʾalmonšam'' || will write to self
|-
|}
The genitive pronouns are also used to indicate the subject of a verb in a reflexive construction.
 
=====Verb moods=====
Vrkhazhian has five moods other than the indicative mood: jussive, conditional, subjunctive, commissive, and propositive.
The table below shows the present tense of the verb '''s-b-b''' (to kill)
{| class="wikitable"
|+Verb Mood
!
! Active Singular !! Active Plural !! Translation !! Passive Singular !! Passive Plural !! Translation
|-
! Jussive
| ''wisbab'' || ''wisbabam'' || have to kill || ''wisbeb'' || ''wisbebam'' || have to be killed
|-
! Conditional
| ''mosbab'' || ''mosbabam'' || would kill || ''mesbeb'' || ''mesbebam'' || would be killed
|-
! Subjunctive
| ''bisbab'' || ''bisbabam'' || may kill || ''bisbeb'' || ''bisbebam'' || may be killed
|-
! Commissive
| ''ḵastubab'' || ''ḵastubbam'' || promise to kill || ''ḵestabeb'' || ''ḵestabbam'' || promise to be killed
|-
! Propositive
| ''mimsubab'' || ''mimsubbam'' || should kill || ''mimsabeb'' || ''mimsabbam'' || should be killed
|-
|}
 
*The jussive mood is mainly used for expressing obligation or duty, but when there are no subject pronouns or nouns in, it functions as the imperative, expressing direct commands to the adressee(s).
*The conditional mood expresses a hypothetical situation, that is dependent on another set of circumstances.
*The subjunctive mood expresses hypothetical actions or situations, usually in that-clauses.
*The commissive mood expresses a commitment to do something, like a promise or threat.
*The propositive mood express suggestions or propositions.
 
====Adverbial morphology====
Adverbs in Vrkhazhian are marked for number in agreement with the verb they modify. Adverbs always follow the verb they modify. Adverbs are placed into the stem CeCuCat. An example of this is when the root '''ʾ-n-l''' (to be blind) is placed into the stem, it becomes "blindly".
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adverb declension
!
! Singular || Plural
|-
! Adverb
| ''ʾenulat'' || ''ʾenultam''
|-
|}
 
===Pronouns===
====Unfamiliar and Familiar Personal Pronouns====
An important feature of Vrkhazhian is the Familiaritive, which is a form of grammatical formality that marks that the referent is familiar to the speaker be they friends, family, lovers, or even rivals. The use of the familiaritive markers can convey openness and friendliness towards the referent, while the lack of use can convey distance and even outright hostility to the referent, except when they refer to oneself or generic persons (4th person).
 
Personal pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Unfamiliar Pronouns
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | Genitive || colspan=2 | Lative || colspan=2 | Ablative
|-
! colspan=2|Person || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! rowspan=2|1st
!<small>inclusive</small>
| rowspan=2|žaẏ "I" || yeš "we" || rowspan=2|šadib || ʾažib || rowspan=2|šadik || ʾažik || rowspan=2|šadiš || ʾažiš || rowspan=2|šadit || ʾažit
|-
!<small>exclusive</small>
| ṉal "we" || ṉalib || ṉalik || ṉališ || ṉalit
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
!<small>masculine</small>
|  ʾaši "you" ||  ʾašam "you" || ʾašib || ʾašmib || ʾašak || ʾašmak || ʾačeš || ʾačameš || ʾačat || ʾačamat
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| ʾata "you" || ʾatam "you" || ʾatib || ʾatmib || ʾatak || ʾatmak || ʾateš || ʾatameš || ʾatat || ʾatamat
|-
! rowspan=3|3rd
!<small>masculine</small>
| šul "he" || baʾ "they" || šujim || baʾib || šujak || baʾak || šuješ || baʾeš || šujat || baʾat
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| šaf "she" || tav "they" || šafib || tavib || šafak || tavak || šapeš || tabeš || šapat || tabat
|-
!<small>neuter</small>
| ḥol "they" || ṗal "they" || ḥojim || ṗajim || ḥojak || ṗajak || ḥoješ || ṗaješ || ḥojat || ṗajat
|-
! colspan=2|4th
|colspan=2 Align="center"|ʾaḥ "one" ||colspan=2 Align="center"|ʾaḥib ||colspan=2 Align="center"|ʾaḥak ||colspan=2 Align="center"| ʾaqeš ||colspan=2 Align="center"|ʾaqat
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Familiar Pronouns
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | Genitive || colspan=2 | Lative || colspan=2 | Ablative
|-
! colspan=2|Person || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
!<small>masculine</small>
| ʾeni "you" ||  ʾenam "you" || ʾenib || ʾenmib || ʾenak || ʾenmak || ʾeneš || ʾembeš || ʾenat || ʾembat
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| ʾira "you" || ʾiram "you" || ʾirib || ʾirmib || ʾirak || ʾirmak || ʾireš || ʾirbeš || ʾirat || ʾirbat
|-
! rowspan=3|3rd
!<small>masculine</small>
| niz "he" || toḡ "they" || nizib || toḡib || nizak || toḡak || niẕeš || togeš || niẕat || togat
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| nab "she" || sit "they" || nabib || sitib || nabak || sitak || nabeš || siteš || nabat || sitat
|-
!<small>neuter</small>
| sem "they" || meš "they" || semib || mešib || semak || mešak || semeš || mečeš || semat || mečat
|-
|}
 
====Demonstrative Pronouns====
Demonstrative pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
! || colspan=3 | Deixis
|-
! Number || Proximal || Medial || Distal
|- align="center"
|-
|'''Singular''' || ''ʾib'' "this"||''ʾani'' "that" || ''maẏ'' "that"
|-
|'''Plural''' || ''ʾibim'' "these"||''ʾanim'' "those" || ''maẏm'' "those"
|}
 
====Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs====
Listed below are the interrogative pronouns and adverbs in Vrkhazhian:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Interrogative Pronouns
! English
! Vrkhazhian
|-
| who? || ''ʾalim''
|-
| what? || ''hamat''
|-
| which? || ''ʾaqab''
|-
| how many? || ''ʾawar''
|-
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Interrogative Adverbs
! English
! Vrkhazhian
|-
| where? || ''suhal''
|-
| how? || ''ʾim hamat''
|-
| when? || ''naḵ''
|-
| why? || ''ʾičam''
|-
|}
 
====Relative Pronouns====
Relative pronouns in Vrkhazhian are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
! Number !! Nominative !! Genitive !! Lative !! Ablative
|- align="center"
|-
! '''Masculine singular'''
|''noki'' ||''sažmi'' ||''ṇkeši'' ||''ṇkati''
|-
!'''Masculine plural'''
|''ṇkil'' ||''sažmil'' ||''nokšil'' ||''noktil''
|-
!'''Feminine singular'''
|''noka'' ||''sažma'' ||''ṇkeša'' ||''ṇkata''
|-
!'''Feminine plural'''
|''ṇkan'' ||''sažman'' ||''nokšan'' ||''noktan''
|-
!'''Neuter singular'''
|''noku'' ||''sažmu'' ||''ṇkešu'' ||''ṇkatu''
|-
!'''Neuter plural'''
|''ṇkad'' ||''sažmud'' ||''nokšud'' ||''noktud''
|}
 
===Numerals===
Vrkhazhian uses a base-12 system of numerals, which is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten can be written as ⟨X⟩, and the number eleven as ⟨E⟩.
Cardinal numerals precede the nouns they modify and are placed in the governed state, while ordinal numerals are placed in the absolute state, losing all case endings; cardinal numerals also agree in gender with the noun they modify. An example of this are the nouns ''vakkami'' and ''ʾalkadu'' (which becomes ''ʾalikdud'' in the plural); when a numeral is placed before them they become ''ʾaẏni vakkami'' (one king) and ''apetu ʾalikdud'' (six soldiers). The table below lists the numbers from 1 to 12.   
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Numerals
! Numbers
! Cardinal
(masc.)
! Cardinal
(fem.)
! Cardinal
(neut.)
! Ordinal
(neut.)
|-
! 1
| ''ʾaẏni'' || ''ʾaẏna'' || ''ʾaẏnu'' || ''ʾaẏyun''
|-
! 2
| ''sasri'' || ''sasra'' || ''sasru'' || ''hassir''
|-
! 3
| ''ṇzudi'' || ''ṇzuda'' || ''ṇzudu'' || ''hanzid''
|-
! 4
| ''pśedi'' || ''pśeda'' || ''pśedu'' || ''hapśid''
|-
! 5
| ''beseḡi'' || ''beseḡa'' || ''beseḡu'' || ''habsiḡ''
|-
! 6
| ''ʾepeti'' || ''ʾepeta'' || ''ʾepetu'' || ''haʾpit''
|-
! 7
| ''ʾeremi'' || ''ʾerema'' || ''ʾeremu'' || ''haʾrim''
|-
! 8
| ''šalbi'' || ''šalba'' || ''šalbu'' || ''hašlib''
|-
! 9
| ''zapri'' || ''zapra'' || ''zapru'' || ''hazpir''
|-
! X (10)
| ''ygimi'' || ''ygima'' || ''ygimu'' || ''haẏgim''
|-
! E (11)
| ''ḵtili'' || ''ḵtila'' || ''ḵtilu'' || ''haḵtil''
|-
! 10 (12)
| ''sẕeki'' || ''sẕeka'' || ''sẕeku'' || ''hasẕik''
|-
|}
 
===Syntax===
====Nominal phrases====
Relative clauses follow the noun while numerals and appositions precede the counted noun. All adjectives except colours follow the noun. An example of some of these features is the nominal phrase ''ṛ-Vakkam Yat-Vṛḵaž, ʾIḥamek ʾAraš-Hijiẕud, tumeṭaju šujak numḥaḥ.'' "Arash-Hijitsud Ihamek, the Emperor of Vrkhazh, united his people" which is analyzed in the following table:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Word
!Meaning
!Analysis
!Part of the nominal phrase
|-
| ''ṛ-Vakkam'' || emperor || nominative construct state || rowspan='2' valign='middle' | Apposition
|-
| ''Yat-Vṛḵaž'' || Vrkhazh || unmarked neuter genitive singular
|-
| ''ʾIḥamek ʾAraš-Hijiẕud'' || Arash-Hijutsud Ihamek || unmarked masculine nominative singular || Proper Noun (subject)
|-
| ''tumeṭaju'' || people || neuter accusative singular || rowspan='3' valign='middle' | Relative clause
|-
| ''šujak'' || his || third person masculine genitive singular
|-
| ''numḥaḥ'' || unite || active past singular
|-
|}
 
====Sentence syntax====
There are two basic word orders in Vrkhazhian that are used depending on the grammatical voice of the sentence. In sentences with the active voice, the basic word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while in sentences with the passive voice, the basic word order is Verb-Subject-Oblique (VSX). Compare an active sentence:
 
:'''ʾAšol ṛ-ʾalikdud ṛ-t-ʾulludud ʾuldam.'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Align="center" | ''ʾAšol'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-ʾalikdud'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-t-ʾulludud'' || Align="center" | ''ʾuldam''
|-
| All || Align="center" | DEF-soldier-NOM.NEUT.PL || Align="center" | DEF-ACC-civilian-NEUT.PL || Align="center" | guard\ACT.PRES-PL
|}
:"All of the soldiers guard the civilians."
 
vs. a passive sentence:
 
:'''Nikšemam ṛ-havir ṛ-makšimud ʾim Hiqal.'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Align="center" | ''Nikšemam'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-havir'' || Align="center" | ''ṛ-makšimud'' || Align="center" | ''ʾim'' || Align="center" | ''Hiqal''
|-
| PST-build\PASS-PL || Align="center" | DEF-mercury || Align="center" | DEF-golem-NOM.NEUT.PL || Align="center" | by || Align="center" | Hiqal-OBL
|}
:"The mercury golems were built by Hiqal"
 
The verb root '''ʾ-l-d''' (to guard), in the first example, is conjugated for active past singular in the active sentence agreeing in number with the subject "soldiers", while the verb root '''k-š-m''' (to build [physical]) in the second example is conjugated in the passive past plural, agreeing in number with the subject "the mercury golems".
 
==Writing System==
The Vrkhazhian Akhuva (ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam [ʔaxuβa jat βɹ̩xaʝikam]) is the official writing script of Vrkhazhian. The script consists of 33 letters, 12 numeral glyphs, and 6 vowel diacritics.
The writing direction of the script is boustrophedon, and can start in any horizontal direction preferred, though the most common starting direction is Right-to-Left.
 
===History===
The script has been in use for at least 950 years, with few changes and alterations to the letter forms since it's inception. The script is a descendant of the Proto-Vrkhazhian logographic script.
 
===Letter names===
====Standard letters====
The table below lists the 33 letters of the Akhuva:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="110px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
|-
| [[File:Alakh.PNG|30px|ʾAlaḵ]] || ʾAlaḵ || wind, breath || '''ʾ''' [ʔ]
|-
| [[File:Khav.PNG|30px|Ḵav]] || Ḵav || human || '''ḵ''' [x]
|-
| [[File:Vav2.PNG|30px|Vav]] || Vav || cane || '''v''' [β]
|-
| [[File:Hith.PNG|30px|Hit]] || Hit || lock || '''h''' [h]
|-
| [[File:Dat.PNG|30px|Dat]] || Dat || skull || '''d''' [d]
|-
| [[File:Tsim.PNG|30px|Ẕim]] || Ẕim || fruit, blood || '''ẕ''' [t͡s]
|-
| [[File:Bal.PNG|30px|Bal]] || Bal || path || '''b''' [b]
|-
| [[File:Sum.PNG|30px|Sum]] || Sum || tunnel || '''s''' [s]
|-
| [[File:Zhat.PNG|30px|Žat]] || Žat || helmet || '''ž''' [ʝ]
|-
| [[File:Thal.PNG|30px|Ṭam]] || Ṭam || horn, curve || '''ṭ''' [tʶ]
|-
| [[File:Yav.PNG|30px|Yav]] || Yav || scythe || '''y''' [j]
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
|-
| [[File:Kah.PNG|30px|Kaf]] || Kaf || water || '''k''' [k]
|-
| [[File:Ge.PNG|30px|Gēb]] || Geb || wing || '''g''' [g]
|-
| [[File:Lam.PNG|30px|Lam]] || Lam || hand || '''l''' [l]
|-
| [[File:Ma'.PNG|30px|Maʾ]] || Maʾ || bowl, cup || '''m''' [m]
|-
| [[File:Nesh.PNG|30px|Neš]] || Neš || peace || '''n''' [n]
|-
| [[File:Ghaym.PNG|30px|Ḡaẏm]] || Ḡaẏm || name || '''ḡ''' [ɣ]
|-
| [[File:Phak.PNG|30px|Ṗas]] || Ṗas || poison || '''ṗ''' [pʶ]
|-
| [[File:Pak.PNG|30px|Pak]] || Pak || head || '''p''' [p]
|-
| [[File:Jim.PNG|30px|Jim]] || Jim || pillar || '''j''' [ɟ͡ʝ]
|-
| [[File:Ru.PNG|30px|Ruḡ]] || Ruḡ || snake || '''r''' [ɹ]
|-
| [[File:Fash.PNG|30px|Faš]] || Faš || vulture || '''f''' [ɸ]
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+ʾAḵuva Yat-Vṛḵažikam
|-
! Letter !! Name !! width="100px" | Meaning !! Phoneme
|-
| [[File:Shim.PNG|30px|Šim]] || Šim || house || '''š''' [ç]
|-
| [[File:Waj.PNG|30px|Wad]] || Wad || shield || '''w''' [w]
|-
| [[File:Tal.PNG|30px|Tal]] || Tal || gate || '''t''' [t]
|-
| [[File:Rrat.PNG|30px|Ṟaš]] || Ṟaš || shoulder || '''ṟ''' [ʀ]
|-
| [[File:Chi.PNG|30px|Čit]] || Čit || hook || '''č''' [c͡ç]
|-
| [[File:Zab.PNG|30px|Zab]] || Zab || branch || '''z''' [z]
|-
| [[File:Rhat.PNG|30px|Řat]] || Řat || fear, tail || '''ř''' [rʷ]
|-
| [[File:Lham.PNG|30px|Ḻam]] || Śam || tree || '''ś''' [ʎ̝̊]
|-
| [[File:Qhak.PNG|30px|Ḥak]] || Ḥak || roof || '''ḥ''' [χ]
|-
| [[File:Qar.PNG|30px|Qaẇt]] || Qaẇt || sheep || '''q''' [q]
|-
| [[File:Nhod.PNG|30px|Ṉod]] || Ṉod || ear || '''ṉ''' [ɴ]
|}
|}
 
====Vowel diacritics====
The Akhuva is an abjad, thus vowels are not represented in most texts. However, vowel diacritics may be used to aid learners in reading the text and to reduce ambiguities.
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Mambinad Yat-Vṛḵažikam
|-
! Letter
! Name
! Meaning
! Phoneme
|-
| [[File:Ah.PNG|30px|Maʾlib-]]
| Maʾlib-
| exposing
| '''a''' [a]
 
|-
| [[File:Ee.PNG|30px|]]
|
|
|'''e''' [e̞]
 
|-
| [[File:Eh.PNG|30px|Yat-]]
| Yat-
| ground
|'''i''' [i]
 
|-
| [[File:Oh.PNG|30px|Ḵoṭ-]]
| Ḵoṭ-
| circle
| '''o''' [o̞]
 
|-
| [[File:Oo.PNG|30px|Mamḵap-]]
| Mamḵap-
| hollow, empty
| '''ə''' [ə]
 
|-
| [[File:Uu.PNG|30px|]]
|
|
| '''u''' [u]
 
|}
 
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Kburad Yat-Vṛḵažikam
|-
! Numeral
! Name
! Phoneme
|-
| [[File:Yay.PNG|30px|ʾAẇdu Yav]]
| ʾAẇdu Yav
| '''ẏ''' [e̯]
 
|-
| [[File:Waw.PNG|30px|ʾAẇdu Waj]]
| ʾAẇdu Waj
| '''ẇ''' [o̯]
 
|}
 
====Numerals====
{| class="wikitable" id="letters_chart"
|+Kiḏifad Yat-Vṛḵaẕikam
|-
! Numeral
! Number
! Name
|-
| [[File:Sxan.PNG|30px|Šemt-]]
| 0
| Šemt- ("none")
 
|-
| [[File:Ayn.PNG|30px|ʾAẏn-]]
| 1
| ʾAẏn-
 
|-
| [[File:Nim.PNG|30px|Sasr-]]
| 2
| Sasr-
 
|-
| [[File:Daj.PNG|30px|Ṇzud-]]
| 3
| Ṇzud-
 
|-
| [[File:Hat.PNG|30px|Pśed-]]
| 4
| Pśed-
 
|-
| [[File:Azha.PNG|30px|Beseḡ-]]
| 5
| Beseḡ-
 
|-
| [[File:Apeth.PNG|30px|ʾEpet-]]
| 6
| ʾEpet-
 
|-
| [[File:Aram.PNG|30px|ʾErem-]]
| 7
| ʾErem-
 
|-
| [[File:Shab.PNG|30px|Šalb-]]
| 8
| Šalb-
 
|-
| [[File:Adik.PNG|30px|Zapr-]]
| 9
| Zapr-
 
|-
| [[File:Yam.PNG|30px|Ygim-]]
| 10/X
| Ygim-
 
|-
| [[File:Ijith.PNG|30px|Ḵtil-]]
| 11/E
| Ḵtil-
 
|}
 
==Vocabulary==
==Example text==
 
[[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A_priori_conlangs]] [[Category:Vrkhazh]]

Latest revision as of 06:45, 21 September 2015

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