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| == ..... '''kolape'''==
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| This is a complement clause construction. In English there are 7 types of complement clauses, in '''béu''' there are only 3.
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| A complement clause is call a '''kolape''' in '''béu'''. The three types are briefly summarised below and then each of the types is discussed in more detail.
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| 1) I remembered writing the book ... this conveys that the whole process of locking the door is going thru the speakers mind ... '''???ari pá kludau toili'''
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| The '''béu''' form above looks similar to the English "I remembered to write the book". However this is NOT the meaning.
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| To say "I remembered to write the book" in '''béu''' you would say '''???ari tá toili (rà) kludu''' ... see the section about participles.
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| 2) I thought that I wrote the book ... takes the same form in '''béu''' ... '''olgari tá kludari toili'''
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| 3) He asked me whether I had written the book ??? ... ask'''ori (pavi) tavoi kludari toili'''
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| ==='''kolape jù'''===
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| In '''béu''' the word order is usually free. This is not true in a '''kalope jù'''
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| '''jono<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = John was bad
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| '''(pà solbe moze pona sacowe)<sub>S</sub> rì kéu''' = my drinking the cold water quickly was bad
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| Notice that '''pà solbe moze pona sacowe''' behaves as one element. It has the same function as "John" in the previous example.
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| The word order inside '''kolape jù''' is fixed. It must be S V or A V O for a transitive clause (any other peripheral arguments are stuck on at the end).
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| Also notice that the ergative marker '''-s''' which is usually attached to the A argument is dropped. Actually for pronouns it is not just the dropping of the '''-s''', but a change of tone also, so this form is identical to the O form of the pronoun.
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| The '''kolape''' above, if expressed as a main clause would be.
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| '''(pás) solbari saco<sup>*</sup> moze pona''' = I drank the cold water quickly
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| Other examples ;-
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| '''wàr solbe''' (I want to drink) is another example. ('''wò''' = to want)
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| '''klori jono timpa jene''' (he saw John hitting Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
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| '''kolape jù?''' can be considered as a noun phrase and the fixed ordering of elements can be seen as a reflextion of the strict order of elements in a normal noun phrase
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| Subject<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> Object<sub>3</sub>(Peripheral arguments<sub>4</sub> x n)
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| 1) The "A" argument or the "S" argument.
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| 2) The verb.
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| 3) The "O" argument, which would of course be non-existent in an intransitive clause.
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| 4) Adverbs and everything else.
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| A '''gomia''' such as '''solbe''' can be regarded as a proper noun<sup>**</sup> and can be the head of a '''cwidauza''' (see a previous section)
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| or it can be the head of a '''kalope jù'''. But these two constructions are always distinct. For example you couldn't append a determiner to a '''kalope jù''' ... (or could you ??)
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| <sup>*</sup> in a main clause the adverb can appear anywhere if suffixed with '''-we'''. But in '''kalope jù''' the adverb must come after the Subject, Verb and Object.
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| <sup>**</sup> A '''gomia''' never forms a plural or takes personal infixes in the way a normal noun does. Also it only takes a very reduced subset of '''pilana''', so a '''gomia''' can be regarded as an entity half way between nounhood and verb hood. For that reason I consider '''gomia''' as a part of speech, standing alongside "noun" and "verb".
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| ==='''kolape tá'''===
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| In this form the full verb<sup>*</sup> is used, not the '''gomia'''. Also we have a special complementiser particle '''tá''' which comes at the head of the complement clause.
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| '''wàr tá jonos timporu jene''' = I want John to hit Jane
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| '''klori tá jonos timpori jene''' (he saw that John hit Jane) ... ('''klói''' = to see)
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| <sup>*</sup>Well not quite the full form. Evidentials are never expressed.
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| ==='''kolape tói'''===
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| This is equivalent to English word "whether".
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| '''sa''' ''RAF'' '''kalme''' ''Luftwaffe'' '''kyori''' ''Hitler'' '''olga tena''' => The RAF's destruction of the Luftwaffe, made Hitler think again. ... here a '''gomiaza''' acts as the A-argument.
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| <sup>*</sup>in the combinations where '''sacowe''' immediately followed '''solbe''' it is merely '''saco'''
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| -----------
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| Things to think about
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| what is a '''gomiaza'''
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| Can this be used for a causative construction ??
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| == ..... Some linguistic terms in béu==
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| By the way, while we are at it (defining linguistic terms)
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| '''nandau''' = word
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| '''semo''' = a clause ... from the verb "to say" '''sema'''
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| '''semoza''' = a sentence
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| '''jaudauza''' = a verb phrase or verb complex (commonly called a "predicate" by linguists). This is the verb together with the five modals.
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| '''feŋgi''' = a particle ... given above
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| '''plofa''' = a participle (P) ... there are 3 participles in béu
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| '''ʔasemo''' = a relative clause
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| '''kalope''' = a complement clause. There are three types of these ... '''kalope jù''', '''kalope tà''' and '''kalope tavoi'''
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| A '''kalope jù''' is a '''gomiaza''' if it is more than one word long, if only one word long it is simply a '''gomia'''
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| A '''gomiaza''' can comprise of subject ... gomia ... object ... adverb ... other peripheral terms
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| The term '''gomuaza''' is not used. You would use the word '''semo''' meaning clause.
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| '''taifi''' (that which is to be tied ??? check participles) = copular subject
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| '''taifo''' = copular complement
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| '''taifau''' = to tie
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| '''taifana''' = a copula
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| == ..... The parts of speech of béu==
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| "Parts of speech" is linguistic jargon, which is referring to the different "classes" of words a language might have. For example "nouns", "verbs", etc. etc.
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| In fact nouns (N), verbs (V) and adjectives (A) are the big three, and after some debate over the last 30 years, it has been agreed that every language has these three word classes.
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| In '''béu''' a noun is called '''cwidau''' ('''cwì''' meaning a physical object), a verb is called '''jaudau''' ('''jàu''' meaning "to move"), and an adjective is called '''saidau''' ('''sái''' meaning "a colour").
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| There are other classes of words in '''béu''' as there are in other languages. '''béu''' has adverbs ('''wedau''') but these don't really come into their own, being more a form an adjective takes in certain situations. Also a lot of words that are called adverbs in English are called particles ('''feŋgia''') (F) in '''béu'''. Particles are a type of hold-all category for a word that doesn't fit into any of the other classes. Under the term "particle" many subclasses can be defined, and in fact some subclasses have a class membership of one. If you come across a word that can not easily be equated with any of the major word classes ... well then you probably have a '''feŋgi'''.
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| It is necessary to talk about another part of speech which i will refer to by the '''béu''' term '''gomia'''<sup>*</sup> (G). It is a form of the verb which is called the "infinitive" in the Western linguistic tradition.
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| <sup>*</sup> '''goma''' means "tail" and '''gomia''' means "tail-less". The reason for this is that a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs commonly do, has person, number, tense, aspect and evidentiality expressed on the verb as series of suffixes, hence the "tail". These items are not expressed on the '''gomia'''.
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| In contradistinction to '''gomia''' we have '''gomua''' ('''jaudau gomua''' to give the concept its full title) which is a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs typically do.
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| For example '''solbarin''' (I drank, so they say) is a '''gomua'''.
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| '''solbarin''' is built up from the '''gomia''' "'''solbe'''" ... first you delete the final vowel => then you add "'''a'''" meaning first person singular subject => then you add "'''r'''" meaning that the mood is indicative (as opposed to imperative or subjunctive) => then you add "'''i'''" meaning simple past tense => and finally you add "'''n'''" which is an evidential, meaning that the utterance is based on what other people have said.
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| '''solbarin''' is '''gomua pomo''' or "a full tail verb".
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| The three evidential markers are all optional, so they can quite easily be dropped. '''solbari''' (I drank) is what is called '''gomua yàu''' or "a long tail verb".
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| '''solbis''' (you lot drink) and '''solbon''' (let him drink) are '''gomua wái''' or "a short tail verbs" ... the first is an example of the imperative and the second is an example of the subjunctive (more linguistic jargon ... sorry).
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| -----------------
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| '''solbai''' is called an part verb ???
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| == ..... Another relativizer
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| There is another relativized in '''béu''' that refers back to a whole proposition. In English "which" is sometimes given this function. For example ...
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| 1) ... John had completely forgotten his wedding anniversary which really annoyed his wife.
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| '''béu''' uses '''nài''' in a similar way to how which is used in the above example. Also the same shorthand form is used for '''nài''' and '''nái'''. However no misunderstanding is possible since '''nài''' always has a pause before it (how do I do a comma ?) and '''nái''' always is immediately after a noun.
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| == ..... The conditional==
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| '''iba''' = condition, stipulation
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| '''ibla''' = if .... occasionally the form '''ibala''' is used. When the longer form is used, it is showing that the speaker has a lot of doubt as to whether the eventuality will actually come to pass.
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| '''jú''' = then ... this is a conjunction, indicating that what follows follows on from what is before. That is, it shows that they are connected, part of the same train of thought or chain of actions.
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| The béu form for the conditional is .... '''ibla xxx xxx xxx jú xxx xxx xxx'''
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| Usually the tense of the verbs in the above two clauses is the future tense, but it does not have to be. Sometimes you can get quite complicated conditional linkages.
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| The irrealis form of the verb is also quite common in the conditional construction. For example ....
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| "If you had come to London, we would have met"
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| ==Verb chains==
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| He is lowering John down the cliff-face to the ledge => '''ós gora jono''' cliff '''gìa''' ledge'''ye''' ??
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| I dragged the dog along the road ??
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| I whistled while I walked = '''wizari doikan''' or you could say '''wizari saun doikala''' or because '''doikala''' is an adjective, if placed directly after a verb, it acts like an adverb => '''wizari doikala'''
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| to whistle = '''wiʒia'''
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| I saw John whistling = '''klari jono wiʒila'''
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| -----------------------------
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| The causative construction
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| '''(pàs) dari jono dono''' = I made john walk
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| '''(pàs) dari jono timpa jene''' = I made John hit Jane ... in this sort of construction, '''jono''', '''timpa''' and '''jene''' must be contiguous and '''jono''' should be to the left of '''jene'''.
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| ==To give and to receive ==
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| '''nàu''' = "to give" or "to allow" or "to let".
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| '''mài''' = "to receive" or "to get" or "to undergo"
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| A central meaning of these two words are demonstrated in the two examples below.
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| 1) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> nori toili<sub>O</sub> jeneye''' = John has given a book to Jane
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| 2) '''jenes mori toili jonovi''' = Jane has received a book from John ... "receive" in the perfect aspect equates to "have" or "got"
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| O.K. the above is the normal usage of '''nàu''' and '''mài'''. They sort of describe the same action but from two different perspectives.
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| Actually there is an alternative method of giving 1). Namely ...
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| 3) '''jonos nori jene toilitu''' = "John gave Jane with a book" ... in each of these 3 examples, all 3 arguments are marked differently
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| Note ... in 2) '''jene''' takes the ergative, although the action initiated by her would be minimal (if anything at all).
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| --------------------
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| Actually the words "give", "show" and "tell" share the following characteristic ... as well as their arguments appearing as in 1)
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| When a destination comes immediately after the verb '''ái''' "to go" the '''pilana''' '''-k''' is always dropped.
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| In a similar manner when a origin comes immediately after the verb '''kàu''' "to come" the '''pilana''' '''-fi''' is never dropped.
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| But as well as with their central roll, these two words have other uses as well.
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| ===The reciprocal construction===
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| The reciprocal particle can be said to historically come from both '''nàu''' and '''mài'''.
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| '''jonos jenes timpura namai''' = "John and Jane are hitting each other" = "John and Jane hit one and other"
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| '''namai''' the reciprocal particle (usually comes immediately after the verb) is obviously derived from the phrase '''nàu mài'''
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| Also note that '''é'''(and) is not used between proper names.
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| ===To allow or let===
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| '''kyé''' is used to express "to allow" or "to let".
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| John let Jane go => '''jonos kyori bái jenek'''
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| Note that this construction mirrors the construction in 1) above, with an infinitive substituted for indirect object (i.e. '''bé''' "to go" for '''toili''' "book").
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| ===The passive construction===
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| '''bwò''' is involved in the passive construction.
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| 3) '''jonos<sub>A</sub> timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = John hit Jane
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| 4) '''jene<sub>S</sub> bwori timpa''' ('''jonotu''') = Jane was hit (by John)
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| 4) is the passive equivalent of 3) ... used when the A argument is unknown or unimportant.
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| If the agent is mentioned, he or she is marked by the instrumentive '''pilana'''.
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| --------------
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| Notice that all the derived verbs are transitive. There are three ways that we can make an intransitive clause.
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| 1) '''pintu tí mapori''' = The door closed itself ... this form strongly implies that there was no human agent. Possibly the wind closed the door (or a supernatural element when it comes to that).
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| 2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = The door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
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| 3) '''pintu lí mapa''' = The door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
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| By the way, the '''G'''-form of '''nava''' "open" is '''navai'''
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| Let us go back to '''gèu''' and consider '''gèu''' in an intransitive clause. As above we have 3 ways.
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| 1) '''báu tí geusori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved.
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| 2) '''báu bwori gèus''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
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| 3) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
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| --------------
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| Notice that '''naikes''' means the same as '''kyé sau naike''' (to give to be sharp) ... but why say this mouthful when you can simply say '''naikes'''.
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| --------------
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| Any single syllable adjective, must have the suffix '''du''' in all its verbal forms. For example ;-
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| '''àus''' = to blacken, '''maŋkeu''' = faces
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| '''ausuri maŋkiteu''' = they blackened their faces ... interesting construction ... we use the transitive form even tho' they perform the action on themselves.
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| ===The causative construction===
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| '''du''' = "to do" or "to make"
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| '''(pàs) dari oye timpa glá''' = I made him/her hit the woman
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| '''(pàs) dari oye dono''' = I made him/her walk
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| Alternatively we can use the '''tá''' particle and drop the '''-ye'''
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| '''(pàs) dari tá (ó) donor''' = I made him/her walk
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| Is the below OK ?
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| '''bwari kyé bé''' = I received permission to go = I received to give to go.
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| '''jene bwori du dono''' = Jane was made to walk
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| Note that there are three verbs in a row in the line above. '''dono''' seems to qualify '''du''', and '''du dono''' seems to qualify '''bwori'''
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| ('''pàs''') '''bwari du solbe moze''' ('''jonotu''') = I was made to drink the water (by John)
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| '''moze bwori solbe''' ('''jenetu''') = The water was drunk (by Jane)
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| ===Who/what is responsible===
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| 1) '''pintu lí mapa''' = the door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.
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| Agent => Anything ... It could be that the agent was the wind ... or even some evil spirits ... use your imagination.
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| 2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = the door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. (By the way ... I don't mean '''pintu rì mapa''' when I say "the door was closed")
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| Agent => Human and the action deliberate ... It strongly implies that the agent was human but is either unknown or unimportant.
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| Now lets consider '''gèudu''' = "to turn green" ... ambitransitive, S and A ... as in English.
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| 1) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''. This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
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| Agent => Anything and the action could be accidental.
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| 2) '''báu bwori geudu''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
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| Agent => Human and the action deliberate
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| 3) '''báus tí geudori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved and definitely a deliberate action.
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| Agent => The man and the action deliberate
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| ==Ambitransitive verbs==
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| '''fompe''' is an intransitive and a transitive verb (S and A)
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| '''jene fompori''' = Jane tripped
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| '''jonos fompori jene''' = John tripped Jane
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| '''halka''' is an intransitive and a transitive verb (S and O)
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| '''pintu halkori''' = the door broke
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| '''jonos pintu halkori''' = John broke the door
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| A list of 6 ambitransitive (S and A) verbs
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| '''tonza''' = to awaken, to wake up
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| '''henda''' = to put on clothes
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| '''laudo''' = to wash
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| '''poi''' = "to enter" or "to put in"
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| '''gau''' = "to rise" or "to raise"
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| '''sai''' = "to descend" or "to lower"
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| To recognize as a transitive clause you must look for the ergative '''-s''', if no '''-s''' then we have an intransitive clause.
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| Or alternatively you must look for the particle '''kyebwo'''
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| Tom Jerry '''halkuri''' = Tom and Jerry broke
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| Tom Jerry '''halkuri kyebwo''' = Tom and Jerry broke one and other.
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| == ..... The Calendar ==
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| [[Image:The_Calendar_3.png]]
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| The '''béu''' calendar is interesting. Definitely interesting. A 73 day period is called a '''dói'''. 5 x 73 => 365.
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| The phases of the moon are totally ignored in the '''béu''' system of keeping count of the time.
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| The first day of the '''dói''' is '''nelauja''' followed by '''hija''', then '''auja lozoja celaija''' and then '''aiva''' etc. etc. all the way upto '''kiʔoka'''.
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| The days to the right are workdays ('''saipito''') while the days to the left are days off work ('''saifuje'''). Each month has a special festival ('''hinta''') associated with it. These festivals are held in the three day period comprising '''lozoga, celaiga, helauga'''. The five "months" are named after the 5 planets that are visible to the naked eye. The 5 big festivals that occur every year are also named after these planets.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| mercury
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| |align=center| '''ʔoli'''
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| |align=center| Month 1
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| |align=center| '''doiʔoli'''
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| |align=center| Xmas... on 21,22,23 Dec
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| |align=center| '''hinʔoli'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| venus
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| |align=center| '''pwè'''
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| |align=center| Month 2
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| |align=center| '''doipwe'''
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| |align=center| festival on 4,5,6 Mar
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| |align=center| '''himpwe'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| mars
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| |align=center| '''gú'''
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| |align=center| Month 3
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| |align=center| '''doigu'''
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| |align=center| festival on 16,17,18 May
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| |align=center| '''hiŋgu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| jupiter
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| |align=center| '''gamazu'''
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| |align=center| Month 4
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| |align=center| '''doigamazu'''
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| |align=center| festival on 28,29,30 July
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| |align=center| '''hiŋgamazu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| saturn
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| |align=center| '''yika'''
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| |align=center| Month 5
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| |align=center| '''doiyika'''
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| |align=center| festival on 9,10,11 Oct
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| |align=center| '''hinyika'''
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| |}
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| '''hinʔoli''' ... This is the most important festival of the year. It celebrates the starting of a fresh year. It celebrates the stop of the sun getting weaker. It is centred on the family and friends that you are living amongst. Even though eating and drinking are involved in all the five festivals, this festival has the most looked-forward-to feasts.
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| '''himpwe''' ... People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various music and poetry competitions. Sky lanterns are usually released on the last day of this festival. On the first two days of the festival, what is called the "fire walk" is performed. This is to promote social solidarity. Each locality comprising up to 400 people build a fire in some open ground. These people are divided into 2 sections. One section to walk and one section to receive walkers. The walkers are further divided into groups. Each group is assigned another fire to visit and they set of in single file. Each of them carries a torch (a brand) ignited from the home fire. Upon arriving at the fire that they have been assigned (involving a walk of, maybe, 5 or 6 miles) they throw their brand into the fire as their hosts sing the "fire song". After that the visitors are offered much drinks and snacks by their hosts. There is considerable competition between the various localities to be the most generous host. The routes that people must go have been chosen previously by a central committee, but the destination is only revealed to the walkers just before they set out. On the second day the same thing happens but the two sections, the walkers and the receivers of the walkers, swap over rolls.
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| '''hiŋgu''' ... It is usual to get together with old friends around this time and many parties are held. Friends that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken to meet up with old acquainances. Also there is a big exchange of letters at this time. The most important happenings of the last year are stated in these letters along with hopes and plans for the coming year.
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| '''hiŋgamazu''' ... This festival is all about outdoor competitions and sporting events. It is a little like a cross between the Olympics games and the highland games. People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various team and individual competitions. However care is taken that no regional centre becomes too popular and people are discouraged from competing at centres other than their local one. Also at this festival, a "fire walk" is done,
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| just the same as at the "himpwe" festival.
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| '''hinyika''' ... Family that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken for family visits and ancestors ashboxes are visited if convenient. This is the second most important festival of the year. People often take extra time off work to travel, or to entertain guests. Fireworks are let of for a 2 hour period on the night of '''helauga'''. This is one of the few occasions where fireworks are allowed.
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| By the way, when a year changes, it doesn't change between months, it changes between '''lozoga''' and '''celaiga'''.
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| Every 4 years an extra day is added to the year. The '''doiʔoli''' gets a '''helauca'''.
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| '''béu''' also has a 128 year cycle. This circle is called '''ombatoze'''. There is a animal associated with every year of the '''ombatoze'''.
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| These animals are ;-
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| {|
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| | wolf || weasel/ermine/stoat/mink || bullfinch || badger
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| |-
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| | whale || opossum || albatross || beautiful armadillo
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| |-
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| | giant anteater || lynx || eagle || cricket/grasshopper/locust
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| |-
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| | reindeer || springbok || dove || gnu/wildebeest
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| |-
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| | spider || Steller's sea cow || seagull || gorilla
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| |-
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| | horse || scorpion || raven/crow || python
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| |-
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| | rhino || yak || Kookaburra || porcupine ?
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| |-
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| | butterfly || triceratops || penguin || koala
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| |-
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| | polar bear || manta-ray || hornbill || raccoon
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| |-
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| | crocodile/alligator || wolverine || pelican || zebra
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| |-
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| | bee || warthog || peacock || capybara
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| |-
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| | bat || bear || crane/stork/heron || hedgehog
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| |-
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| | frog || lama || woodpecker || gemsbok
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| |-
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| | musk ox || chameleon || hawk || cheetah
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| |-
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| | lion || frill-necked lizard || toucan || okapi
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| |-
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| | dolphin || aardvark || ostrich || T-rex
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| |-
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| | kangaroo || hyena || duck || driprotodon(wombat)
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| |-
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| | shark || cobra || kingfisher || gaur
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| |-
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| | dragonfly || mole || moa || chimpanzee
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| |-
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| | turtle/tortoise || N.A. bison || black skimmer || panda
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| |-
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| | jaguar || snail || cormorant/shag || Cape buffalo
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| |-
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| | rabbit || colossal squid || vulture || glyptodon/doedicurus
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| |-
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| | beetle || seal || falcon || pangolin
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| |-
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| | megatherium || woolly mammoth || flamingo || baboon
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| |-
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| | elk/moose || squirrel || blue bird of paradise || lobster
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| |-
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| | tiger || gecko || grouse || seahorse
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| |-
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| | jackal/fox || octopus || swan || lemur
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| |-
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| | elephant || swordfish || parrot || auroch
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| |-
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| | giraffe || ant || puffin || iguana
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| |-
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| | mouse || crab || swift || mongoose/meerkat
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| |-
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| | smilodon || giant beaver || owl || mantis
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| |-
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| | camel || goat || hummingbird || walrus
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| |}
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| Each of these animals above is a '''toze''', which can be translated as "token", "icon" or "totem ". '''omba''' means a circle or cycle. So you can see where the name for the 128 year period comes from.
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| The very last '''helauca''' of every '''ombatoze''' is dropped.
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| '''ombatoze''' is sometimes translated as "life", "generation" or "century"
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| '''xxx''' means a 4 year period. It also means "calendar".
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| The start of time
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| ---------------
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| Year 2000 had 365.242,192,65 days
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| Every year is shorter than the last by 0.000,000,061,4 days
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| By adding one day every 4 years we get a 365.25 day year
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| If we then drop one day every '''ombatoze''' we get a 365.242,187,5 day year (actually very close to the actual year length)
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| Before 2084, the actual year will be bigger than the calendar year – after 2084 the actual year will be smaller than the calendar year
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| For this reason midnight, 22 Dec 2083 is designated the fulcrum of the whole system. That day will be time zero.
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| At the moment we are in negative time.
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| ==Index==
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| {{Béu Index}}
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