Béu : Chapter 2 : The Noun Phrases: Difference between revisions

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== ..... Pronouns==


..
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Below are the pronouns for the S or O arguments. This form can be considered the "unmarked form".
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''yùa'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''nù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}
 
..
 
Below are the pronouns for the A  arguments.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pás'''
  |align=center| we
  |align=center| '''yúas'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we
  |align=center| '''wías'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gís'''
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''jés'''
  |-
  |align=center| he, she
  |align=center| '''ós'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''nús'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
    |}
 
..
 
'''jè''' and '''jés''' are the second person plural forms.
 
'''yùa''' and '''yúas''' are first person exclusive forms. That is they exclude the person being talked to.
 
'''wìa''' and '''wías''' are first person inclusive forms. That is they include the person being talked to.
 
There is one other pronoun ... the reflexive pronoun '''tí'''. This is always an O argument. Notice that it is the only O argument with a high tone.
 
There is a strong tendency for it to come after the A argument. For example ...
 
'''pás tí timparu''' = I have not hit myself
 
Note ... the A argument could be omitted in the above example as this argument is expressed by the '''a''' in the verb.
 
This particle can be joined to the infinitive. For example ...
 
'''titimpa''' = to hit yourself
 
..
 
== ..... The 4 verb forms==
 
=== ... The infinitive verb form===
 
..
 
The infinitive is called the '''hipe'''
 
The most common multi-syllable verbs end in "a".
 
The less common multi-syllable verbs end in "e" or "o".
 
The least common multi-syllable verbs end in "au", "oi", "eu" or "ai".
 
To form a negative infinitive the word '''jù''' is placed immediately in front of the verb. For example ...
 
'''doika''' = to walk
 
'''jù doika''' = to not walk
 
The infinitive can be regarded as a noun.
 
..
 
=== ... The indicative verb form===
 
..
 
The indicative is called the '''hukəpe'''
 
Note ... the symbol for "r" is called '''huka'''. The word '''hukəpe''' actually means "R-form". "r"-form. By the way, '''mepe''' = form, shape
 
Now we introduce the indicative form of the verb.
 
This form of the verb is built up from the infinitive.
 
But first we should introduce a new letter.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_191.png]]
 
..
 
This letter has not been mentioned so far because it doesn't occur in any words as such. It only occurs in the R-form of the verb.
 
So if you hear "r" or see the above symbol, you know you are hearing the main verb of a clause.
 
1) First the final vowel is deleted.
 
2) Then one of the 7 vowels below is added. These show person and number.
 
[[Image:TW_109.png]]
 
Notice that there are 2 entries that represent the 1st person plural subject (i.e. we). The top one represents first person inclusive and the bottom one represents first person exclusive. 
 
Note that the '''ai''' form is used when you are talking about generalities ... the so called "impersonal form" ... English uses "you" or "one" for this function. 
 
The above defines the "person" of the verb. Then follows an "r" which indicates the word is an verb in the indicative mood. For example ...
 
'''doika''' = to walk
 
'''doikar''' = I walk
 
'''doikir''' = you walk
 
etc. etc. etc.
 
..
 
==== .. Tense====
 
In '''béu''' tense is usually shown not on the verb but is indicated by an adverb of time. This adverb can come anywhere in a clause but it has a strong tendency to come clause initial.
 
'''???''' = yesterday I cleaned my car
 
'''???''' = I clean my car ... taken as a habitual in this case
 
'''???''' = tomorrow I will clean my car
 
The words '''taiku''' meaning the past can be used instead of yesterday, the day before yesterday etc etc ??. This construction is equivalent to a past tense.
 
The words '''jauku''' meaning the future can simply be substituted for tomorrow ??. This construction is equivalent to a future tense.
 
To indicate the future, if the subject is human, often the word INTEND ??? is used. For example ... ??
 
There is one tense, it is the present tense which is shown by adding an "a". For example ...
 
'''doikara''' = I am walking
 
==== .. Aspect====
 
The perfect aspect is shown by adding an "i". For example ...
 
'''doikari''' = I have walked
 
The ending "u" can be considered the opposite of the above aspect. Lets call it the "not yet" aspect. For example ...
 
'''doikaru''' = I have not yet walked / I have not walked
 
==== .. Negativeness====
 
The indicative mood is negativized by adding '''ju'''. For example ...
 
'''doikarju''' = I do not walk
 
The present tense is negativized as above but with addition of the word '''kyu.i''' ( meaning "now"). For example ...
 
'''doikarju kyu.i''' = I am not walking
 
Note - the "u" aspect can be considered the negative of the  "i" aspect and vice versa.
 
==== .. Probability====
 
There are two adverbs '''màs''' and '''lói'''.
 
As with all adverbs they can be placed almost anywhere in a sentence. However these two have a strong preference to be sentence initial.
 
'''màs doikori''' = maybe he has walked
 
'''lói doikori''' = probably he has walked
 
You could say that the first one indicates about 50 % certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty.
 
..
 
=== ... The subjunctive verb form===
 
..
 
The subjunctive is called the '''sudəpe'''
 
The subjunctive verb form comprises the same person/number component as the indicative, followed by "s". That is all. For example ...
 
'''doikos''' = go on, let him walk.
 
The usage of the '''béu''' subjunctive covers the same functions as the Swahili subjunctive.
 
The negative subjunctive is formed by adding '''ke'''. For example ...
 
'''doikoske''' = best not to let him walk.
 
..
 
=== ... The imperative verb form===
 
..
 
The imperative is called the '''yeməpe'''
 
This is used for giving orders. When you utter an imperative you do not expect a discussion about the appropriateness of the action  (although a discussion about the best way to perform the action is possible).
 
For non-monosyllabic verbs ...
 
1) First the final vowel of the infinitive is deleted.
 
2) Then either -'''iya''' or  -'''eya''' is added. '''iya''' when commanding one person, '''eya''' when commanding more than one person. For example ...
 
'''doikiya''' = walk !
 
For monosyllabic verbs ...
 
1) -'''ya''' is added. For example ...
 
'''dó''' = to do
 
'''doya''' = do it !
 
The negative imperative is formed by putting the particle '''kyà''' before the infinitive.
 
'''kyà doika''' =  Don't walk !
 
There is no distinction for number in the negative imperative.
 
..
 
=== ..... The consecutive and simultaneous tenses===
 
TO BE PLACED 2 CHAPTERS BEHIND THE ABOVE ARTICLE
 
Earlier we mentioned the present tense. There are 2 further tenses in '''béu'''. However they aren't relative to NOW but relative to the last ROGER form verb.
 
The consecutive tense, '''eu''', shows that the action takes place after the time of occurrence of the previous ROGER form verb. For example ...
 
'''jana doikar moʒi solbeu''' = Yesterday I had a walk and then drank some water
 
The simultaneous tense, '''ai''', shows that the action takes place at the same time as the previous ROGER form verb. For example ...
 
'''jana doikar moʒi solbeu''' = Yesterday I walked about a bit while drinking water
 
Note ... verbs with these endings, even tho', they are in indicative mood, actually have the mood of the initial verb ???
 
..
 
=== ..... Verb chains===
 
TO BE PLACED 2 CHAPTERS BEHIND THE ABOVE ARTICLE
 
When 2 (or more) actions are considered inextricably tangled up in each other, '''béu''' forms a verb chain.
 
In a verb chain the non-final verbs are given the ending '''i''' ( '''ia''' if they are monosyllabic ) and only the final verb takes its normal ending. The final verb can have any form. That is it can be base form, ROGER form, SIERRA form or YANKIE form.
 
A verb chain can only have one subject. For example ...
 
1) YESTERDAY FISH CATCH-I COOK-I EAT-UR = Yesterday they caught some fish, cooked the fish and then ate the fish.
 
A verb chain must have all the verbs contiguous. However sometimes there can be 2 (or more) objects. When 2 objects are present the noun-incorporation must be used. This is done simply by sticking the object to the front of the verb to make one word.
 
2) ALL EVENING CHAMPAIGN.DRINK-I CAVIAR.EAT-AIR = All day we were drinking champaign and eating caviar.
 
3) ALL AFTERNOON REPORT.WRITE-I PHONE.ANSWER.AR = All afternoon I was writing reports and answering the telephone.
 
The internal time structure of the chain must be worked out from knowledge of the situation described. For example in 1) the actions were CATCH then COOK then EAT in that order (probably). In 2) the actions DRINK and EAT happened at the same time (probably). In 3) the 2 actions wouldn't be at the same time but interspersed sort of randomly through-out the afternoon (probably).
 
Now all the above were examples of "one off" verb chains. These are relatively rare. More often one comes across the common verb chains. For example ...
 
4) CLIMB-I DESCEND TREE = to climb down a tree
 
5) THROW-I DESCEND BOOK = to throw down a book
 
6) THROW-I DESCEND-I US.COME BOOK = to throw down a book at us (it didn't hit us)
 
7) THROW-I DESCEND-I US.ARRIVE BOOK = to throw down a book at us (it hit us)
 
Note ... Another place where noun-incorporation is used a lot is with the participles. For example ...
 
DEER.HUNT-ANA = deerhunting, deerhunter
 
== ..... How words change class==
 
..
 
=== ... Adjectives => Nouns===
 
..
 
'''gèu''' = green : '''geumai''' = greenness
 
'''naike''' = sharp : '''naikemi''' = sharpness
 
Note ... the affix changes depending on whether the word is a monosyllable or a non-monosyllable.
 
Note ... '''gèu''' can also mean "the green one". You can tell from context whether it is an adjective or a noun. All adjectives behave likewise.
 
..
 
=== ... Adjectives (and nouns) => Verbs===
 
..
 
'''gèu''' = green : '''geudo''' = to greenify, to turn green, to become green.
 
'''naike''' = sharp : '''naikedo''' = to sharpen, to become sharp
 
'''keŋkia''' = salty : '''keŋkido''' = to salt, to add salt
 
Note ... when the adjective ends is a diphthong (and is non-monosylabic) the last vowel is dropped.
 
??? = bicycle : ???do = to bicycle
 
For example ...
 
('''pà''') '''geudari''' = I have turned green
 
('''pás''') '''geudari ʃì''' = I have turned it green
 
'''ós geudori ʃì''' = She turned it green
 
Note ... in the above example the A argument can't be omitted. If it was the meaning would be "it turned green".
 
-----
 
Note ... '''dó''' by itself is a verb meaning "to do". All other monosyllabic verbs beginning with a single consonant have diphthongs for their infinitive form.
 
..
 
=== ... Verbs => Adjectives===
 
..
 
==== .. The passive participle====
 
..
 
The passive participle is formed by affixing '''-wai''' to the infinitive. For example ...
 
'''kludau''' = to write : '''kludwai''' = written
 
'''solbe''' = to drink : '''solbwai''' = drunk (not in the sense of intoxicated)
 
and because of the strong tendency of adjectives to also serve as nouns ...
 
'''kludwai''' = the one that is written => a note
 
'''solbwai''' = "that which has been drunk"
 
..
 
==== .. The active participle====
 
..
 
Sometimes also called the habitual participle.
 
The active participle is formed by affixing '''-ana''' to the infinitive. For example ...
 
'''kludau''' = to write : '''kludana''' = "writing" or "fond of writing"
 
'''solbe''' = to drink : '''solbana''' = drinking
 
and because of the strong tendency of adjectives to also serve as nouns ...
 
'''kludana''' = the one who is always writing => writer/author
 
'''solbana''' = "he who drinks" or "a drinker"
 
..
 
==== .. The present participle====
 
..
 
The present participle is formed by affixing '''-la''' to the infinitive. HOWEVER in this case the final vowel of the infinitive is not deleted. Rather it is kept but if it is a diphthong it drops its second half. For example ...
 
'''kludau''' = to write : '''kludala''' = "writing just now"
 
'''solbe''' = to drink : '''solbela''' = "drinking at this moment"
 
and because of the strong tendency of adjectives to also serve as nouns ...
 
'''kludala''' = "the one writing just now" or just "the writer"
 
'''solbela''' = "the one now drinking" or just "the drinker"
 
..
 
==== .. The participle of obligation====
 
..
 
Actually the form '''solbe''' by itself can be a participle when it qualifies a noun. For example ...
 
'''moʒi solbe''' = the water that must be drunk
 
'''toili kludau''' = the book that must be written
 
and because of the strong tendency of adjectives to also serve as nouns ...
 
'''kludau''' = that which must be written => an (school) assignment
 
..
 
=== ... Verbs => Nouns===
 
..
 
Actually verbs in their infinitive form can be considered nouns also. For example ...
 
'''dó''' = to do, to make ... but it can also be translated as "deed" or "action".
 
If an action can result in (or be strongly connected to) some physical object. In that case the name of the physical object is derived from the verb by deleting the final vowel of the infinitive and adding "u". For example ...
 
'''dó''' = to make, to produce : '''dú''' = product
 
'''solbe''' = to drink : '''solbu''' = a drink
 
..
 
=== ... Nouns => Adjectives===
 
..
 
'''keŋko''' = salt : '''keŋkia''' = salty, having salt : '''keŋkua''' = not salty, lacking salt
 
..
 
== ..... Word building==
 
..
 
In '''béu''' when 2 nouns are come together the second noun qualifies the first. (see Note at bottom). For example ...
 
'''toili nandau''' = "book words" ... the thing being talk about is a book. "words" is an attribute of "book".
 
Now the person who first thought of the idea of writing a dictionary would have called this idea '''toili nandau'''
 
However over the years as the concept '''toili nandau''' became more and more common '''toili nandau''' was changed to '''nandəli'''
 
Often when this happens the constructed word takes on a narrower meaning than the two words standing together.
 
The mechanism for this word building is ...
 
1) Swap positions : '''toili nandau''' => '''nandautoili'''
 
2) Delete syllable : '''nandautoili''' => '''nandauli'''  .....  this of course can not happen if the original word is a monosyllable. In that case it just looses its tone.
 
3) Vowel becomes schwa : '''nandauli''' => '''nandəli''' .....  this does not happen for vowels from monosyllabic words.
 
Lets take another example ...
 
'''mepe hí''' = "form origin"
 
1) => '''himepe'''
 
2) => '''hipe''' .... there is no (3) ... by the way, this is the '''béu''' word for infinitive (a linguistic term)
 
And another one ...
 
'''wé deuta''' = "manner soldier"
 
1) '''deutawe''' ... there is no (2)
 
3)  '''deutɘwe''' (in the manner of a soldier)
 
The only time you see the schwa is in the middle of constructed words.
 
NEED DIAGRAM
 
It is represented as a dot.
 
When spelling words out, this dot is pronounced as '''jía''' ... meaning "link".
 
Note ... this method of word building is only used for two nouns. Other classes of word can sometimes combine, but they don't use this method.
 
-----
 
Note ... If 2 or more nouns together have the same roll in a sentence they are separated by '''lè''' (and).
 
It is represented as a small cross.
 
If if is obvious to the listener that a string of nouns are going to be given then they can be annunciated with just a slight pause between them.
However '''lè''' must always separate the last from the second last. (Pretty much the same system as English).
 
..
 
== ..... Word order==
 
..
 
The components of a clause ( i.e.  verb, subject and object) can occur in any order.
 
'''béu''' uses this freedom to show definiteness. Namely if a NP comes after the verb, then the speaker reckons the listener does not know WHICH NP he is talking about.
 
Furthermore, to indicate to the listener that he himself is not acquainted with the NP, he will slip in the particle '''é''' before the NP.
 
So ... the speaker places a NP before or after the verb depending on the listeners (the second person) acquaintance with the NP.
 
Also the speaker (the first person) can place the particle '''é''' before the NP to show he (the first person) also is unacquainted with it.
 
..
 
== ..... The '''pilana'''==
 
..
 
There are 17 particles that together are called the '''pilana'''.
 
These can in certain situations be suffixed to nouns and they have the functions covered by “cases” in certain languages.
 
The word '''pilana''' is built up from ;-
 
'''pila''' (v) = to place, to position
 
'''pilana''' (a, n) = positioning, the positioner
 
-----
 
Below are the first 8 '''pilana''' … these are to do with “location”
 
1) '''pí''' = in
 
2) '''là''' = on
 
3) '''máu''' = above
 
4) '''gòi''' = below
 
5) '''cè''' = this side of
 
6) '''dùa''' = beyond, at the far side of
 
7) '''bene''' = right, at the right hand side of
 
8) '''komo''' = left, on the left hand side of
 
Now these are used to give a location with respect to some object. When this object is only one word, the '''pilana''' is suffixed to that word. For example …
 
'''nambopi''' = in the house
 
'''nambomau''' = on the house, over the house
 
However, when this object is expressed as 2 or more words, the '''pilana''' is not suffixed but appears as a free standing word and comes before the object. For example …
 
'''dùa nambo yinkai hauʔe''' = beyond the house of the pretty girl
 
There are two other words that are important for specifying location, '''tài''' and '''jáu''', “in front of” and “behind”. Now we must be careful here. In English usage “behind” can mean “at the far side of" as well as "at the backside". The same with “in front of” but to a lesser extend. In '''béu''', '''tài''' and '''jáu''' can only be used with objects that have a well defined “front” and “back”. Prototypically these objects are humans but '''tài''' and '''jáu''' can also be used with … for example “a house”. They can not be used with object which lack a front and a back. For example they can not be used with "mountain".
 
'''pilana''' 1, 3 - 8 plus '''tài''' and '''jáu''' never occur unless preceding a NP or suffixed to a noun. However they can become nouns in their own right, if the affix '''ʔai''' is attached. For example …
 
'''piʔai''' = interior
 
Occasionally you get them joined to -'''ʔau'''. For example …
 
'''piʔau''' = interior surface
 
'''là''' can also be joined  to -'''ʔau'''. For example …
 
'''laʔau''' = on it
 
Note ... '''piʔai wò nambo''' means exactly the same as '''nambopi'''. Invariably the terser form is used.
 
-----
 
The above '''pilana''' define location. The next 2 specify motion.
 
9) '''yé''' = to
 
10 '''fì''' = from
 
-----
 
The next 4 define the roll that the object plays in the sentence.
 
11) '''tù''' = with, using
 
12) '''jì''' = for
 
13) '''wò''' = about, with respect to
 
14) -'''s''' = “the ergative case”
 
-----
 
The next is a “general locative”.
 
15)  -'''n''' = at
 
The last 2 '''pilana''' have the form '''sá''' and '''nà''' when they must precede a NP. When (on the very rare occasion yo have a noun ending in a consonant) they have the forms -'''es''' and -'''en'''.
 
-----
 
The last 2 '''pilana''' define motion and position. They are sort of hybrids.
 
16) -'''lya''' = onto
 
17) -'''lfe''' = off
 
They have the forms '''alya''' and '''alfe''' when they must precede a NP.
 
Another thing that sets the pilana apart from other particles, is that they are never written in full. Whether appearing as affixes or independent words, the vowels are always dropped.
 
WE NEED A LITTLE DIAGRAM HERE.
 
——————————————————————————
 
OK two chapters later we introduce the relativizer and then show how the ‘’’pilana’’’ affixes to the relativizer.
 
..
 
== ..... The copula==
 
..
 
There is one copula in '''beuba'''.
 
Its infinitive is '''sàu'''. Following the method of other verbs, its negative is '''jù sàu'''.
 
The indicative mood is derived from the infinitive in the usual method. So ...
 
'''sàr''' = I am
 
'''ʃìr''' = you are
 
'''sòr''' = he/she/it is
 
etc. etc.etc.
 
The negative is formed be suffixing -'''ke'''. For example ...
 
'''sorke''' = he/she/it is not
 
Actually the (present tense, positive) copula is usually dropped if there is no chance of a misunderstanding.
 
It is mostly used for emphasis; like when you are refuting a claim
 
Person A) ...  '''ʃirke moltai''' = You aren't a doctor
 
Person b) ...  '''sàr moltai''' = I AM a doctor
 
Another situation where the (present tense, positive) copula tends to be used is when either the subject or the copula complement are longish trains of words.  For example ...
 
'''solbua alkyo ʔá dori sùr sawoi''' = Those alcoholic drinks that she has made are delicious.
 
Unlike the other verbs, the copula has a different form for the past tense and a different form for the future tense. These are ...
 
'''tàr''' = I was
 
'''jàr''' = I will be
 
'''jarke''' = I won't be
 
etc. etc.etc.
 
(You could say that '''taiku sàr''' => '''tàr''' and '''jauku sàr''' => '''jàr''')
 
The forms ‘’’sor’’’ and ‘’’sur’’’ are invariably shortened to simply -‘’’r’’’ and stuck on to the end of the copula subject.
 
Similarly the forms ‘’’sorke’’’ and ‘’’surke’’’ are invariably shortened to simply -‘’’rke’’’ and stuck on to the end of the copula subject.
 
Note ... In copular sentences there is not free word order. They must be "copula subject" followed by "copula" followed by "object". Copula subject does not take the ergative suffix -'''s'''.
 
The subjunctive forms are ...
 
'''sas''' and '''saske''' ... uses ???
 
There are only two imperative forms ... '''jiya''' and '''jeya'''
 
-----
 
In a later chapter ...
 
'''tari''' = I was already
 
'''taru''' = I was not yet
 
'''sari''' = I am already
 
'''saru''' = I am not yet
 
'''jari''' = I will be already
 
'''jaru''' = I will not yet be
 
-----
 
'''làu''' = to change
 
'''lìa sàu''' = to become ... following the rules given in the section "Verb chains"
 
== ..... Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

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