Béu : Chapter 2: Difference between revisions

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== ..... Pronouns ==
{{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}}


Below the form of the '''béu''' pronouns is the given for when the pronoun is the A argument.


..
db-g7
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pás'''
  |align=center| we  (includes "you")
  |align=center| '''yúas'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we (doesn't include "you")
  |align=center| '''wías'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gís'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jés'''
  |-
  |align=center| he, she
  |align=center| '''ós'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''nús'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
    |}
 
 
Because the person and number of the A or S argument is expressed in the actual verb. The above are usually dropped (however the third person pronoun is occasionally retained to give the distinction between human and non-human subject) so when the pronouns above are come across, it might be better to translate them as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
 
Below the form of the '''béu''' pronouns is the given for when the pronoun is the S or O argument. When they are used as an S arguments (i.e. with an intransitive verb), it might be better to translate these pronouns  as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
 
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''yùa'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''nù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}
 
..
 
The above table is for S and O arguments, it fact we have another pronoun but this one only occurs as an O argument. When a action is performed by somebody on themselves we use '''tí''' to represent the O argument.
 
Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in '''béu''' we do not say '''*pás pà timpari''', but '''pás tí timpari'''.
 
It is a rule that '''tí''' must follow the A argument (if it is overtly expressed ... i.e. by a free-standing pronoun and not just in the verb)
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in '''béu''' only one.
 
..
 
The possessive form of these pronouns are ...
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| my
  |align=center| '''pàn'''
  |align=center| our
  |align=center| '''yùan'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| our
  |align=center| '''wìan'''
  |-
  |align=center| your
  |align=center| '''gìn'''
  |align=center| your (plural)
  |align=center| '''jèn'''
  |-
  |align=center| his, her
  |align=center| '''òn'''
  |align=center| their
  |align=center| '''nùn'''
  |-
  |align=center| its
  |align=center| '''ʃìn'''
  |align=center| their
  |align=center| '''ʃìn'''
    |}
 
..
 
And we also have '''tín''' which is used if the possessor is the same as the subject of the clause.
 
Actually the '''n''' suffix is the locative. In the grammar, location and possession are marked identically.
 
..
 
== ..... The Specifiers==
 
Called '''koiʒia''' in '''béu'''
 
'''koiʒi''' actually means "preface" as in "the preface to the book"
 
All words that can occur to the right of the head in a NP are called '''nandaua koiʒi''' or ... when talking about grammar ... usually just '''koiʒia'''
 
These words include the numbers from 1 to 1727, the words "few" and "many", and the words below.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''jù'''
  |align=center| no
  |-
  |align=center| '''í'''
  |align=center| any
  |- 
  |align=center| '''é'''
  |align=center| some (singular)
  |-
  |align=center|  '''éu'''
  |align=center| some (plural)
  |-
  |align=center|  '''ù'''
  |align=center| all
  |-
  |align=center|  '''yú'''
  |align=center| each/every
  |}
 
..
 
These words can also constitute a NP in themselves. When they do that, the table below gives their translations into English.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''jù'''
  |align=center| nobody/nothing/none
  |-
  |align=center| '''í'''
  |align=center| anybody/anything
  |- 
  |align=center| '''é'''
  |align=center| somebody/something
  |-
  |align=center|  '''éu'''
  |align=center| some people/somethings
  |-
  |align=center|  '''ù'''
  |align=center| everybody/everything
  |-
  |align=center|  '''yú'''
  |align=center| everybody/everything
  |}
 
..
 
NB ... It should be remembered that '''é''' and '''éu''', in certain circumstances can mean "what" or "who"
 
..
 
== ..... The R-form of the verb==
 
..
 
Now we should introduce the active forms of the verb. Also referred to as the R-forms. '''béu''' has quite a comprehensive set of tense/aspect markers. The active form of the verb is built up from the infinitive form ('''gomia'''). There is only one form of the infinitive.
 
We will discuss the most-used form of the verb in this section, the R-form. But first we should introduce a new letter.
 
[[Image:TW_108.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_113.png]]
 
 
This letter has not been mentioned so far because it doesn't occur in any words as such. It only occurs in the R-form of the verb.
 
So if you hear "r" or see the above symbol, you know you are hearing the main verb of a clause. (definition of a clause ('''semo''') = that which has one "r" ... ??? )
 
O.K. ... the R-form is built up from the '''gomia'''<sup>*</sup>.
 
1) the final vowel is deleted from the '''gomia'''.
 
<sup>*</sup>Excepts in rare cases (see "Adjectives and how they pervade other parts of speech")
 
=== ... Slot 1 ===
 
..
 
2) one of the 7 vowels below is added.
 
[[Image:TW_109.png]]
 
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... In the Western linguistic tradition, these markers are said to represent "person" and "number". Person is either first, second or third person (i.e. I, you, he or she). In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''cenʔo'''-markers. ('''cenʔo''' = musterlist, people that you know, acquaintances, protagonist, list of characters in a play)
 
These markers represent the subject (the person that is performing the action). Whenever possible the pronoun that represents the subject is dropped, it is not needed because we have that information inside the verb with the '''cenʔo'''-markers.
 
Notice that there are 2 entries that represent the 1st person plural subject (i.e. we). The top one must be used when the people performing the action included the speaker, the spoken to and possibly others. The lower one must be used when the people performing the action include the speaker, NOT the person spoken to and  one or more 3rd persons.
 
Note that the '''ai''' form is used where in English you would use "you" or "one" (if you were a bit posh) ... as in "YOU do it like this", "ONE must do ONE'S best, mustn't ONE".
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... This pronoun is often called the "impersonal pronoun" or the "indefinite pronoun".
 
So we have 7 different forms for person and number.
 
..
 
=== ... Slot 2 ===
 
..
 
3) now one of the 16 markers shown below is added. 16 is quite a respectable number, as far as tense/aspect markers go.<sup>*</sup>
 
 
[[Image:TW_116.png]]
 
 
Now these markers represent what are called tense/aspect markers in the Western linguistic tradition. In the '''béu''' linguistic tradition, they are called '''gwomai''' or "modifications". ('''gwoma''' = to alter, to modify, to adjust, to change one attribute of something).
 
The table above has the '''gwoma''' arranged according to form. The two arrays below have the '''gwoma''' arranged according to meaning. The items below the solid line are the negatives of the items above. An orange background indicates the timeless tense. You can see I have one entry enclosed by brackets. That is because to give a negative present tense negative you would express it periphrastically ... you would use the tenseless negative '''-rka''' followed by the '''béu''' equivalent of "now" or "at the moment".
 
 
[[Image:TW_117.png]]
 
 
 
 
 
 
Looking at the upper table, you can see the first 3 columns differ by their vowel. These are the tenses ... '''i''' for the past, '''a''' for the present and '''u''' for the future.
 
'''-ri''' ... This is the plain past tense. This is most often used when somebody is telling a story (a narrative). For example "Yesterday I got up, ate my breakfast and went to school". All three verbs in this narrative use the plain past tense.
 
'''-ra''' ... Should only be used if the action is happening NOW. English uses "to be xxxing". For example '''doikara''' = I am walking ... ('''doika''' = to walk)
 
'''-ru''' ... This is the future tense.
 
'''-r''' ... This has no time reference. It might be used for timeless "truths" such as "the sun rises in the West" or "birds fly".
 
The next row has what is called the habitual aspect. English has a past habitual (i.e. I used to go to school), Often in English the plain form of the verb is used as a habitual (i.e. I drink beer). Actually in '''béu''' the pattern is broken a bit, in that '''-rna''' has NOTHING to do with the activity going on at the time of speech, it is actually a tenseless habitual. Also '''béu''' and English behave the same in the following way ... whereas by logic we should use '''doikarna''' in "I walk (to school everyday)", in fact '''doikar''' is used. '''doikarna''' would be used only if we were going on to MENTION some exception (i.e. but last tuesday Allen gave me a lift)
 
'''doikarna''' = "sometimes I walk, and sometimes I choose not to walk" or even "I usually walk". If you walked on every occasion that was possible, then you would use '''doikar'''
 
'''-rnu''' ... Now English doesn't have a future habitual. But if it did it would have a roll. For instance, suppose you have just moved to a new house and are asked "how will you get to the supermarket". In '''béu''' you would answer '''doikarnu'''.
 
The next row expresses the perfect tense.
 
While the perfect tense, logically this doesn't have that much difference from the past tense it is emphasising a state rather than an action. It represents the state at the time of speaking as the outcome of past events. We have this tense/aspect in English and it is realized as "have xxxxen". For example if you wanted to talk to John and you went to his office, his secretary might say "he has gone to lunch" (as opposed to "he went for lunch"), which emphasises the absence of John. And think about the difference in meaning between "she has fallen in love" and "she fell in love" ... the first one means "she is in love" while the second one just talks about some of her history.
 
Another use for this tense is to show that something has happened at least once in the past. For example "I have been to London".
 
Easy to translate into English ... '''doikorwi''' = He/she had walked ...  '''doikorwa''' = He/she has walked ...  '''doikorwu''' = He/she will have walked
 
The next row expresses the "not yet" tense.
 
Easy to translate into English ... '''doikoryi''' = He/she had not yet walked ...  '''doikorya''' = He/she hasn't walked yet ...  '''doikoryu''' = He/she will not have walked
 
Notice that the English translation, '''doikoryu''' is just the negative of  '''doikorwu'''. Interesting eh ? In fact these two aspects can be in many ways regarded as the negatives of each other, although in English only the future tense gives the surface forms this way.
 
Which leads us on to the next row. This row gives the negatives of row 1 and row 2 (that is right, row 2 does not have its own negative).
 
Just as '''-rna''' does not specify the present tense but instead gives a tenseless habitual, '''-rka''' gives a tenseless negative.
 
Easy to translate into English ... '''doikorki''' = He/she didn't walk ...  '''doikorka''' = He/she doesn't walk ...  '''doikorku''' = He/she will not walk
 
You may have noticed that the '''béu''' letter that negates verbs is very similar to the Chinese character that negates verbs ('''bù'''). This is pure coincidence.
 
By the way, the '''béu''' terms for the five aspects represented by these 5 rows are ... '''baga''', '''dewe''', '''pomo''', '''fene''', and '''liʒi'''.
 
<sup>*</sup>But even with 16 tense/aspect markers, not EVERY situation can be exactly expressed.
 
For example suppose two old friends from secondary school meet up again. One is a lot more muscular than before. He could explain his new muscles by saying "I have been working out" (using the progressive plus the perfect aspects). The "have" is appropriate because we are focusing on "state" rather than "action". The "am working out" is appropriate because it takes many instances of "working out" (or working out over some period of time) to build up muscles. '''béu''' has no tense/aspect marker so appropriate.
 
Every language has a limited range of ways to give nuances to an action, and language "A" might have to resort to a phrase to get a subtle idea across while language "B" has an obligatory little affix on the verb to economically express the exact same idea. You could swamp a language with affixes to exactly meet every little nuance you can think of (you would have an "everything but the kitchen sink" language). However in 99% of situations the nuances would not be needed and they would just be a nuisance.
 
By the way, in the above example, the muscular schoolmate would use the '''r''' form of the verb plus the '''béu''' equivalent of "now", to explain his present condition. Good enough.
 
=== ... Slot 3 ===
 
..
 
4) and finally one of the 4 '''teŋko'''-markers shown below is added.
 
[[Image:TW_122.png]]
 
'''teŋkai''' is a verb, meaning "to prove" or "to testify" or "to give evidence" or "to demonstrate" ... '''teŋko''' is a noun derived from the above, and means "proof" or "evidence".
 
About a quarter of the worlds languages have, what is called "evidentiality", expressed in the verb.  As evidentials don't feature in any of the languages of Europe most people have never heard of them. In a language that has "evidentials"  you can say (or you must say) on what evidence you are saying what you are saying. In '''béu''' there are 4 evidential suffixes. One is what is called a zero suffix. And in meaning it gives no information whatsoever as to what evidence the statement is based.
 
a) '''doikori''' = He/she walked ...  this is neutral. The speaker has decided not to tell on what evidence he is saying what he is saying.
 
b) '''doikorin''' = They say he/she walked ... It this case the speaker is asserting "he walked" because somebody (or some people) have told him so.
 
c) '''doikoris''' = I guess he walked ... It this case the speaker is asserting "he walked" because he worked it out somehow.
 
The above 2 '''tenko''' are introducing some doubt, compared to the plain unadorned form ('''doikori'''). The fourth '''tenko''' on the contrary, introduced more certainty.
 
d) '''doikoria''' = I saw him walk ... In this case the speaked saw the action with his own eyes. This form can also be used if the speaker witnessed the action thru' another of his senses (maybe thru' hearing for example), but in the overwhelming majority of cases where this form is used, it means "I saw it myself".
 
This last '''teŋko''' can only be used with one of the '''gwomai''' . It can ONLY be used with the plain passed tense form '''i'''.
 
An '''o''' is  used to connect word final '"r" to the evidential markers "n" and "s".
 
..
 
== ..... How A O and S arguments are identified==
 
In this section we discuss pronouns and also introduce the S, A and O arguments.
 
'''béu''' is what is called an ergative language. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative. So let us explain what ergative means. Well in English we have 2 forms of the first person singular pronoun ... namely "I" and "me". Also we have 2 forms of the third person singular male pronoun ... namely "he" and "him". These two forms help determine who does what to whom. For example "I hit him" and "He hit me" have obviously different meanings.
 
..
 
In English there is a fixed word order, which also helps to tell who did what to who when the participants are given as nouns instead of pronouns. In '''béu''' the order of the verb and the participants are not fixed as in English.
 
..
 
'''glàs baú timpori''' = The woman hit the man
 
'''glà baús timpori''' = The man hit the woman
 
It can be seen that "'''s'''" is added to the "doer" of the action.
 
..
 
However consider the clause below ...
 
..
 
'''glà doikor''' = The woman walks
 
It can be seen that the "doer" does not have an attached "'''s'''" in this case.
 
The reason is that "to walk" is an intransitive verb while "to hit" is a transitive verb
 
It is the convention to call the doer in a intransitive clause the S argument.
 
It is the convention to call the "doer" in a transitive clause the A argument and the "done to" the O argument.
 
A language that has the S and O arguments marked in the same way is called an ergative language
 
If you like you can say ;-
 
In English "him" is the "done to"(O argument) : "he" is the "doer"(S argument)  and the "doer to"(A argument).
 
In '''béu''' '''ò''' is the "done to"(O argument) and the "doer"(S argument) : '''ós''' is the "doer to"(A argument).
 
..
 
== ..... Transitivity and the very useful word "é" ==
 
..
 
In '''béu''' a verb is either transitive or intransitive. There is no "ambitransitive verbs as in English.<sup>*</sup>
 
For example ... in English, you can say ... "I will drink water" or simply "I will drink"
 
The second option is not allowed in '''béu''' ... as "drink" is a transitive verb, you must say "I will drink something" = '''solbaru é'''
 
Well actually you can, the '''é''' can be dropped ... just as easily as the '''pás''' is dropped. The point is that the listener "knows" that there are always 2 arguments. The same can not be said in English when you here "he drinks" ... it could mean that the subject habitually drinks alcohol, in which case we have only one S argument.
 
For another example ... in English, you can say ... "the woman closed the door" or simple "the door closed".
 
The second option is not allowed in '''béu''' ... as "close" is a transitive verb, you must say "something closed the door" = '''pintu nagori és'''
 
(Actually there is another option for expressing the above ... you can change any transitive verb to an intransitive verb ... '''pintu nagwori''' = "the door was closed"
 
..
 
If an argument is definite in '''béu''' it is usually comes before the verb, and if indefinite it usually comes after the verb.
 
Now the word '''é''' is by definition indefinite. It actually means "somebody" OR "something". What happens if this word is put before the verb.
 
Well something quite interesting happens ... '''é''' changes into a question word meaning "who" or "what"
 
For example ... '''és pintu nagori''' = Who/what closed the door
 
For another example ... "what will I drink"  = '''é solbaru'''
 
And yet another one ... "who drank the water" = '''és moze solbori'''
 
..
 
<sup>*</sup>Actually you can tell the transitivity of a verb (for a word of more than one syllable) by looking at its last consonant. If the last consonant is '''j b g d c s k''' or '''t''' then it is transitive. If it is '''ʔ m y l p w n''' or '''h''' it is intransitive.
 
There is about 300 words that have an intransitive form as well as a transitive form, only differing in their final consonant. The relationship between these final consonants is shown below. '''x''' means "any vowel".
 
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| transitive
  |align=center| intransitive
  |-
  |align=center| '''-jx'''
  |align=center| '''-lx'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''-bx'''
  |align=center| '''-ʔx'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''-gx'''
  |align=center|  '''-mx'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''-dx'''
  |align=center|  '''-yx'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''-cx'''
  |align=center| '''-wx'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''-sx'''
  |align=center| '''-nx'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''-kx'''
  |align=center| '''-hx'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''-tx'''
  |align=center| '''-lx'''
  |}
 
..
 
NB ... '''y''' and '''w''' are usually not allowed to be the second element in a word ... but in these special words, they are.
 
 
== ..... Building up a noun phrase (NP)==
 
..
 
Now we talk about the '''béu''' noun phrase ('''cwidauza'''). This can be described as ;-
 
Specicier<sub>1</sub> Head Adjective<sub>2</sub> Genitive<sub>3</sub> Determiner<sub>4</sub> Relative-clause<sub>5</sub>
 
1) A specifier ('''lizana''') is either a number or a word such as "all" ('''ù'''), some ('''é''' or '''éu'''), "any" ('''í'''), every ('''yú'''), "many", "a few".
2) An adjective ('''moizana''') ... not much to say about this one, you can string together as many as you like ... the same as in English.
 
3) A noun or pronoun that qualifies another noun (commonly called the Genitive in the Western linguistic tradition). Formed by suffixing '''-n''' to a normal noun makes it into a genitive.
 
4) Either '''dí''' "this", or '''dè''' "that".
 
5) This is a clause that qualifies the noun. It starts with the particle '''ʔà'''.
   
 
An interesting point is that in the absence of a "head", any of the other elements can act as the head.
 
The head is usually a noun but can also be an adjective. When you come across an adjective as head of a noun phrase, its meaning is "the person/thing that is "adjective" ".
 
..
 
 
== ..... The '''pilana'''==
 
These are what in LINGUISTIC JARGON are called "cases". The classical languages, Greek and Latin had 5 or 6 of these. Modern-day Finnish has about 15 (it depends on how you count them, 1 or 2 are slowly fading away). Present day English still has a relic of a once more extensive case system : most pronouns have two forms. For example ;- the third-person:singular:male pronoun is "he" if it represents "the doer", but "him" if it represents "the done to".
 
The 12 '''béu''' case markers are called '''pilana'''
 
The word '''pilana''' is built up from ;-
 
'''pila''' = to place, to position
 
'''pilana''' <= ('''pil<del>a</del>''' + '''ana'''), in LINGUISTIC JARGON it is called a "present participle".  It is an adjective which means "putting (something) in position".
 
As '''béu''' adjectives freely convert to nouns<sup>*</sup>, it also means "that which puts (something) in position" or "the positioner".
 
Actually only a few of them live up to this name ... nevertheless the whole set of 12 are called '''pilana''' in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_189.png]]
 
..
 
The '''pilana''' are suffixed to nouns and specify the roll these nouns play within a clause or within a NP.
 
As well as the 10 illustrated above, we have '''s''' for the ergative case and '''n''' for the locative case. Also we have the unmarked case which represents the S or O argument.
 
As shown above the '''pilana''' are represented by their own symbols. Or at least the ten that do not consist of single letters.
 
When the represent an affix, they come immediately below the noun the qualify (no space). When the represent the free standing forms, they have a space both above and below.
 
Notice that by a addition of '''pilana''', you might expect to get the forms '''alye''' and '''alfi'''. As you can see this is not the case. Perhaps the amalgamated form has the final vowel changed under the pull of the initial vowel, '''a'''.
 
..
 
== ..... The cases ... suffix or preposition ?==
 
..
 
Now one quirk of '''béu''' (something that I haven't heard of happening in any natural language), is that the '''pilana''' is sometimes realised as an affix to the head of the NP, but sometimes as a preposition in front of the entire NP. This behaviour can be accounted for with  thing with two rules.
 
1) The '''pilana''' attaches to the head and only to the head of the NP.
 
2) The NP is not allowed to be broken up by a '''pilana'''. The whole thing must be contiguous. So if a NP has elements after the head the case must be realised as a preposition and be placed in front of the entire noun phrase.
 
So if we have a NP with elements to the right of the head, then the '''pilana''' must become a preposition. The prepositional forms of the '''pilana''' are given on the above chart to the right. These free-standing particles are also written just using the symbols given on the above chart to the left. That is in writing they are shorn of their vowels as their affixed counter-parts are.
 
------
 
Here are some examples of the above rules ...
 
..
 
'''fanfa''' = horse
 
'''sonda''' = son
 
'''blico''' = king
 
'''fanfa sondan''' = the horse of the son
 
'''sonda blicon''' = the son of the king
 
However the suffixed form can only be used if the genitive is a single word. Otherwise the particle '''na''' must be placed in front of the words that qualify. For example ;-
 
We can't say '''*fanfa sondan blicon''' however. The '''-n''' on '''sonda''' is splitting the NP '''sonda blico'''.
 
So we must say '''fanfa nà sonda blicon'''
 
Some more examples ...
 
'''fanfa nà sonda jini blicon''' = "the horse of the king's clever son'''
 
'''fanfa nà sonda nà blico somua''' = "the horse of the fat king's son"
 
------
 
..
 
Here are some more examples of the above rules ...
 
'''pintu nambon''' = the door of the house
 
'''pintu nà nambo tuju''' = the door of the big house
 
When one of the specifiers is involved we have two permissible arrangements.
 
1) '''pintu é nambon'''= the door of some house
 
2) '''pintu nà é nambo''' = the door of some house
 
1) is the more usual way to express "the door of some house", but 2) is also allowed as it doesn't break any of the rules.
 
This also goes for numbers as well as specifiers.
 
'''papa auva sondan''' = the father of two sons
 
'''papa nà auva sonda''' = the father of two sons
 
..
 
<sup>*</sup>Another case when the '''pilana''' must be expressed as a prepositions is when the noun ends in a constant. This happens very, very rarely but it is possible. For example '''toilwan''' is an adjective meaning "bookish". And in '''béu''' as adjectives can also act as nouns in certain positions, '''toilwan''' would also be a noun meaning "the bookworm". Another example is '''ʔokos''' which means "vowel".
 
== ..... '''koiʒia'''==
 
'''koiʒi''' actually means "preface" as in "the preface to the book"
 
Also means forewarning or harbinger ... as in "that slight tremor on Tuesday night, was '''koizi''' of the quake on Friday"
 
All words that can occur to the right of the head in a NP are called '''nandaua koiʒi''' or ... when talking about grammar ... usually just '''koiʒia'''
 
These words include the numbers from 1 to 1727, the words "few" and "many", and the words below.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''jù'''
  |align=center| no
  |-
  |align=center| '''í'''
  |align=center| any
  |- 
  |align=center| '''é'''
  |align=center| some (singular)
  |-
  |align=center|  '''éu'''
  |align=center| some (plural)
  |-
  |align=center|  '''ù'''
  |align=center| all
  |-
  |align=center|  '''yú'''
  |align=center| each/every
  |}
 
..
 
These words can also constitute a NP in themselves. When they do that, the table below gives their translations into English.
 
..
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''jù'''
  |align=center| nobody/nothing/none
  |-
  |align=center| '''í'''
  |align=center| anybody/anything
  |- 
  |align=center| '''é'''
  |align=center| somebody/something
  |-
  |align=center|  '''éu'''
  |align=center| some people/somethings
  |-
  |align=center|  '''ù'''
  |align=center| everybody/everything
  |-
  |align=center|  '''yú'''
  |align=center| everybody/everything
  |}
 
..
 
NB ... It should be remembered that '''é''' and '''éu''', in certain circumstances can mean "what" or "who"
 
== ..... The '''gomiaza'''==
 
'''gomiaza''' could be translated as "infinitive phrase"
 
'''gomia''' have some similarities to nouns. However they differ in that they never take plurals, are never "possessed" and although they take 8 of the 12 '''pilana''', some of the rolls that these '''pilana''' play differ quite a bit from the rolls they play with nouns.
 
Also when a '''pilana''' is joined to a '''gomia''', if it ends in a diphthong, then the final vowel is dropped. For example ...
 
'''kludau''' = to write
 
'''kludala''' = writing (adjective)
 
Note ... the final vowel is not dropped when the '''gomia''' is a monosyllable.
 
REDO ALL THE STUFF BELOW ... also tie in the participle phrase (equivalent to Dixon's complement clause)
 
Near the start of this chapter we saw how '''béu''' builds up a NP (noun phrase). Now '''gomia''' is a noun so '''gomia''' can be the head of the structure given above.
 
If a '''gomia''' is put in the structure above then the word put in the "genitive"<sup>*</sup> slot corresponds to the O argument if the action was described using an active verb.
 
It must be restated that ONLY the O argument can go in the "genitive" slot. English is quite permissive when it comes to sticking on arguments to verbal nouns. Witness ...
 
1) Attila's destruction of Rome
 
2) Rome's destruction (by Attila)
 
In '''béu''' if the A argument is to be represented in the '''gomia''' NP, it is introduced by the instrumental.
 
In actual fact '''gomia''' NPs can be quite long with all sorts of place, time and manner arguments tagged on to the end.
 
----------
 
However there is a second way to build up a '''gomia''' NP. This type of NP has "A '''gomia''' O "other peripheral arguments". For example ????
 
There can be no mixing of these 2 types of '''gomia''' NP.
 
<sup>*</sup>And when it comes to word building. The O argument can be subsumed into the verb. .... hunting of ducks => duckhunting
 
And possibly as a back formation from the above, "duck-hunt" can be used as an active verb.
 
==..... '''éu moizana'''==
 
Some adjectives
 
'''moizu''' = attribute, characteristic, feature
 
And following the way '''béu''' works, if there is an action that can be associated with noun (in any way at all), that noun can be co-opted to work as an verb.
 
Hence '''moizori''' = he/she described, he/she characterized, he/she specified ... '''moizus''' = the noun corresponding to the verb on the left
 
'''moizo''' = a specification, a characteristic asked for ... '''moizoi''' = specifications ... '''moizana''' = things that describe, things that specify
 
'''nandau moizana''' = an adjective, but of course, especially in books about grammar, this is truncated to simply '''moizana'''
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| good
  |align=center| '''bòi<sup>*</sup>'''
  |align=center| bad
  |align=center| '''kéu'''
  |-
  |align=center| long
  |align=center| '''làu'''
  |align=center| short
  |align=center| '''lái'''
  |-
  |align=center| high, tall
  |align=center| '''hài'''
  |align=center| low, short
  |align=center| '''ʔáu'''
  |-
  |align=center| right, positive
  |align=center| '''lugu'''
  |align=center| left, negative
  |align=center| '''liʒi'''
  |-
  |align=center| white
  |align=center| '''ái'''
  |align=center| black
  |align=center| '''àu'''
  |-
  |align=center| young
  |align=center| '''sài'''
  |align=center| old (of a living thing)
  |align=center|  '''gáu'''
  |-
  |align=center| clever, smart
  |align=center| '''jini'''
  |align=center| stupid, thick
  |align=center| '''tumu'''
  |-
  |align=center| near
  |align=center| '''nìa'''
  |align=center| far
  |align=center| '''múa'''
  |-
  |align=center| new
  |align=center| '''yaipe'''
  |align=center| old, former, previous
  |align=center|  '''waufo'''
  |-
  |align=center| big
  |align=center| '''jutu'''
  |align=center| small
  |align=center| '''tiji'''
  |-
  |align=center| hot
  |align=center| '''fema'''
  |align=center| cold
  |align=center| '''pona'''
  |-
  |align=center| open
  |align=center| '''nava'''
  |align=center| close
  |align=center| '''mapa'''
  |-
  |align=center| simple, easy
  |align=center| '''baga'''
  |align=center| complex, difficult, hard
  |align=center| '''kaza'''
  |-
  |align=center| sharp
  |align=center| '''naike'''
  |align=center| blunt
  |align=center| '''maubo'''
  |-
  |align=center| wet
  |align=center| '''nuco'''
  |align=center| dry
  |align=center| '''mide'''
  |-
  |align=center| empty
  |align=center| '''fene'''
  |align=center| full
  |align=center| '''pomo'''
  |-
  |align=center| fast
  |align=center| '''saco'''
  |align=center| slow
  |align=center| '''gade'''
  |-
  |align=center| strong
  |align=center| '''yubu'''
  |align=center| weak
  |align=center| '''wiki'''
  |-
  |align=center| heavy
  |align=center| '''wobua'''
  |align=center| light
  |align=center| '''yekia'''
  |-
  |align=center| beautiful
  |align=center| '''hauʔe'''
  |align=center| ugly
  |align=center| '''ʔaiho'''
  |-
  |align=center| contiguous, touching
  |align=center| '''yotia'''
  |align=center| apart, separate
  |align=center| '''wejua'''
  |-
  |align=center| fat
  |align=center| '''somua'''
  |align=center| thin, skinny
  |align=center| '''genia'''
  |-
  |align=center| bright
  |align=center| '''selia'''
  |align=center| dull, dim
  |align=center| '''golua'''
  |-
  |align=center| thin
  |align=center| '''pilia'''
  |align=center| thick
  |align=center| '''fulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| east, dawn, sunrise
  |align=center| '''cúa'''
  |align=center| west, dusk, sundown
  |align=center| '''dìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| tight
  |align=center| '''taitu'''
  |align=center| slack, loose
  |align=center|  '''jauji'''
  |-
  |align=center| neat
  |align=center| '''ilia'''
  |align=center| untidy
  |align=center| '''ulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| soft
  |align=center| '''fuje'''
  |align=center| hard
  |align=center| '''pito'''
  |-
  |align=center| wide/broad
  |align=center| '''juga'''
  |align=center| narrow
  |align=center| '''tisa'''
  |-
  |align=center| rough
  |align=center| '''gaʔu'''
  |align=center| smooth
  |align=center| '''sahi'''
  |-
  |align=center| deep
  |align=center| '''gubu'''
  |align=center| shallow
  |align=center| '''siki'''
  |-
  |align=center| right
  |align=center| '''sèu'''
  |align=center| wrong
  |align=center| '''gói'''
  |}
 
In the above list, it can be seen that each pair of adjectives have pretty much the exact opposite meaning. However in '''béu''' there is ALSO a relationship between the sounds that make up these words. 
 
In fact every element of a word is a mirror image (about the L-A axis in the chart below) of the corresponding element in the word with the opposite meaning.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔ''' 
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''m'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''y'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''j'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''au'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''f'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''o'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''b'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''oi'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''g'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''i'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''d'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ia'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|  '''high tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''l'''
  |align=center| ===========================
  |align=center| '''a'''
  |align=center| ============================
  |align=left|  '''neutral'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''c'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ua'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|'''low tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''u'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''k'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''eu'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''p'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''e'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''t'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''ai'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''w'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''n'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''h'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |}
 
<sup>*</sup> Note that the adverb version of this word is slightly irregular. Instead of '''boiwe''' it is '''bowe'''. People often shout this when impressed with some athletic feat or sentiment voiced ... '''bowe bowe''' => well done => bravo bravo
 
Also instead of '''keuwe''' we have '''kewe'''. People often shout '''kewe kewe kewe''' if they are unimpressed with some athletic feat or disagree with a sentiment expressed. Equivalent to "Booo boo".
 
== ..... Simple arithmetic==
 
'''noiga''' = arithmetic
 
[[Image:TW_69.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_70.png]]
 
Above right you can see the numbers 1 -> 11 displayed. Notice that the forms of 1, 3, 6, 7 and 9 have been modified slightly before the "number bar" has been added.
 
In the bottom right you can see 7 interesting symbols. These are used to extend the range of the '''béu''' number system (remember the basic system only covers 1-> 1727). Their meanings are given in the table below.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| elephant
  |align=center| '''huŋgu'''
  |-
  |align=center| rhino
  |align=center|  '''nàin'''
  |-
  |align=center| water buffalo
  |align=center| '''wúa'''
  |-
  |align=center| circle
  |align=center| '''omba'''
  |-
  |align=center| hare
  |align=center| '''yanfa'''
  |-
  |align=center| beetle
  |align=center| '''mulu'''
  |-
  |align=center| bacterium, bug
  |align=center| '''ʔiwetu'''
  |}
 
To give you an idea of how they are used, I have given you a very big number below.
 
[[Image:TW_77.png]]
 
Which is  => 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559,62 ... E represents eleven and T represents ten ... remember the number is in base 12.
 
O.K. this number has a ridiculous dynamic range. But this is for demonstration purposes only: if you can handle this number you can handle any number.
 
This monster would be pronounced '''aja huŋgu ufaila nàin ezaitauba wúa idauja omba idaizaupa yanfa elaibau mulu idaidauka ʔiwetu elaifau dó'''
 
Now the 7 "placeholders" are not really thought of as real numbers, they are markers only. Used in the same way that we would say "point"/"decimal" when reeling off a number.
 
When first introduced to this system, many people think that the '''béu''' culture must be untenable, however strangely enough the '''béu''' culture has lasted many thousands of year, despite the obvious confusion that must arise when they attempt to count elephants.
 
One further point of note ...
 
If you wanted to express a number represented by digits 2->4 from the LHS of the monster, you would say '''aufaidaula nàin''' .... the same way as we have in the Western European tradition.
However if you wanted to express a number represented digits 6 ->8 from the RHS of the monster, you would say '''yanfa elaibau'''  .... not the way we do it.  This is like saying "milli 630" instead of "630 micro".
 
To make a number negative the "number bar" is placed on the left. See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_71.png]]
 
Also a number can be made imaginary by adding a further stroke that touches the "number bar". See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_73.png]]
 
As you can see above, there is no special sign for the "addition operation". The numbers are simply written one beneath the other. Similarly with subtraction but one number would be negative this time.
 
There is a special sign to indicate multiplication ('''+'''), and there is an equals sign ('''-''').
 
Division is the same as multiplication except that one of the numbers is in "fractional form".
 
There is an alternative multiplication/division notation : instead of using the '''+''' sign, the two quantities can instead be written side by side (see the example above).
 
-6 is pronounced '''ela liʒi''' ... '''liʒi''' means left or "negative
 
By the way '''lugu''' means right (as in right-hand-side) or positive.
 
4i is pronounced '''uga haspia''' ... and what does '''haspia''' mean, well it is the name of the little squiggle that touches the number bar, for one thing.
 
-4i is pronounced '''uga haspia liʒi'''
 
-1/10 is pronounced '''diapa liʒi'''
 
i/4 is pronounced '''duga haspia'''
 
And so ends chapter 2 ...
 
== ..... Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

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