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| == ..... When a noun qualifies another one==
| | {{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}} |
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| A) When the relationship between the nouns is one of ownership (usually a thing owned by a person), the thing comes first and it is followed by the person, with the person taking the '''pilana''' of location.
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| B) When the relationship between the nouns is "part to the whole", with the noun denoting the whole taking the '''pilana''' of location.
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| C) When the relationship between the nouns is a kinship relationship the attribute noun takes the '''pilana''' of location.
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| D) When the relationship between the nouns is of an attribute ( see page 265 ) the attribute noun takes the '''pilana''' of location.
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| F) When the relationship between the nouns is association, the attribute noun takes the '''pilana''' of location.
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| ------------ | |
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| E) "above the house" = '''atas nambo''' ... for the same reason, people get their knickers in a twist about this one. However these "locative words" are a bit different as they are hardly ever used alone (maybe in the past they were, that is if '''béu''' had a past). If they are uttered without in isolation these days the invariably have '''ka''' suffixed.
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| M) "cup of water" = cup '''moze''' ... people get their knickers in a twist about this one. "cup" must be the head, but surely water is more important. That is, semantically "water" is the "head" but syntactically "cup" is the head.
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| Well in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition we get around this by ???
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| Z) There is one more case to talk about. If something is made out something, then we use the preposition '''mò''' meaning "out of". For example ....
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| a cup of gold ???
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| Think about other situations in which we can use this partative case (look at Finnish).
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| == ..... How to bring a word into focus ==
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| Actually there is a way to focused elements in a statement which mirrors the way to focus elements in a question. We use '''cà''' for this.
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| Statement 1) '''báus glaye timpi alhai''' = the man gave flowers to the woman
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| Focused statement 2) '''báus glaye cà timpi alhai''' = It is the woman to whom the man gave the flowers.
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| Any argument or in fact the verb itself can be focused in this way.
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| == ..... Questions==
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| '''béu''' has a "toolbox" that allows us to ask questions. The tools in that box are '''ʔái''', '''nái''', '''gwaili''' and '''cái''' ... the 4 words used for asking questions.
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| === ..... How to ask a yes/no question ===
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| To turn a normal statement into a polar question (i.e. a question that requires a YES/NO answer), we stick the particle '''ʔái''' on the end of the sentence.
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| '''ʔái''' is neutral as to the response you are expecting.
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| To answer a positive question, YES or NO ( '''ʔaiwa àu aiya''' ) is sufficient.
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| To answer a negative question positively, YES ( '''ʔaiwa''' ) is enough.
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| To answer a negative question negatively, you must give an entire clause.
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| For example ;-
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| Question 1) '''glà (rà) haube ʔái''' = Is the woman beautiful ? .......... If she is beautiful, answer '''ʔaiwa''', if she isn't answer '''aiya'''.
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| Question 2) '''glà ká haube ʔái''' = Isn't the woman beautiful ? ........ If she isn't beautiful, answer '''ʔaiwa''', if she is answer '''ò rà hauʔe'''. (notice that the copula must be used in this case)
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| The above method questions the entire clause. However if you want to question one element in a clause, then you front that element and have '''ʔái''' immediately after.
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| Statement 1) '''báus glaye kyori alhai ''' = the man gave flowers to the woman
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| Straight question 2) '''báus glaye kyori alha ʔái''' = did the man gave flowers to the woman ?
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| Focused question 3) '''glaye ʔái báus kyori alha''' = Is it the woman that the man gave flowers to ?
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| Focused question 4) '''báus ʔái glaye kyori alha''' = Is it the man that gave flowers to the woman ?
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| Focused question 5) '''alha ʔái báus glaye kyori''' = Is it flowers that the man gave to the woman ?
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| Focused question 6) '''kyori ʔái báus glaye alha''' = the man GAVE flowers to the woman ? (a possible situation ... the speaker has previously thought the woman had stolen the flowers)
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| === ..... How to ask a content question ===
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| '''béu''' is unusual in that it has only two content question words ... '''nái''' and '''gwaili'''.
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| English is more typical of languages in general and has 7 content question words ... "which", "what", "who", "where", "when", "how" and "why".
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| '''nái''' means "which" and most English content question words are equivalent to a generic noun followed by '''nái'''.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| what
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| |align=center| '''dài nái'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| who
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| |align=center| '''bù nái'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| where
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| |align=center| '''hà nái'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| when
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| |align=center| '''kyù nái'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| what type of ....
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| |align=center| '''myàn nái'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| how
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| |align=center| '''wè nái'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| why
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| |align=center| '''lì nái'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| how much
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| |align=center| '''bà nái'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| how many
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| |align=center| '''nò nái'''
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| |}
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| To answer '''lì nái''' you would use '''gwài'''.... "because" or '''jí''' .... "in order to" / "to".
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| In English as in about 1/3 of the languages of the world it is necessary to front the content question word. This is not necessary in '''béu'''.
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| The '''pilana''' are added to the content question words as they would be to a normal noun phrase.
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| In fact there is one contraction that takes place. It is '''sá bù nái''' => '''sù nái'''.
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| So you could say that '''sù nái''' = "who", and '''bù nái''' = "whom"
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| Here are some examples of content questions ...
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| Statement 1) '''báus glaye kyori alhai''' = the man gave flowers to the woman
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| Question 2) '''sù nái glaye kyori alhai''' = who gave flowers to the woman
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| Question 3) '''báus ye bù nái kyori alhai''' = to whom did the man gave flowers
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| Question 4) '''báus glaye kyori dài nái''' = what did the man give to the woman
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| ------------
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| TO THINK ABOUT
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| Notice that in 5, '''nái''' and the word that it is conjoined with, can not be seperated by the '''pilana''' '''ye'''.
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| "which one" would be translated as '''ʃì nái''' if we are referring to a non-A argument and non-human.
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| "which ones" would be translated as '''nò ʃì nái''' if we are referring to a non-A argument and non-human.
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| "which one" would be translated as '''ò nái''' if we are referring to a non-A argument but human.
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| "which ones" would be translated as '''ù nái''' if we are referring to a non-A argument but human.
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| Of course to refer to an A argument, we simple add -'''s''' to the pronoun.
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| === ..... How to ask what is being done ===
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| '''béu''' is unusual in that it has a word that is a question verb.
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| '''ʔail'''- meaning "to do what". For example ...
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| '''ʔailiri''' = "what will you do"
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| '''ʔailora jonos jene''' = "what is John doing to Jane"
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| It doesn't have to be fronted but it usually is.
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| Some of the words mentioned above are very common. Because of this, they have a shorthand way of being written.
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| [[Image:TW_172.png]]
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| == ..... The 5 "specifiers" ==
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| You can say that '''béu''' is basically a SVO language (although actually any of the 6 orders possible are acceptable).
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| You can say that in the typical sentence, S is definite and O is indefinite or generic.
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| When O is definite, usually we switch to the SOV word order.
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| But what do we do when S is indefinite ?
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| Well in these cases we put a specifier in front of S. There are 5 specifiers ...
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| Specifying a thing from all things of that type
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| The 5 specify'''ana'''
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| any
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| |align=center| '''ʔín'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| some
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| |align=center| '''án'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| some
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| |align=center| '''àn'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| all
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| |align=center| '''hùn'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| every single
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| |align=center| '''hunin'''
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| |}
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| These words appear immediately before nouns. No nouns in plural form are allowed to appear after these "specifiers".
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| These 5 words have a special "shorthand" form. They are never written out in full. The shorthand form is given below.
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| [[Image:TW_140.png]]
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| '''ʔín toili''' = any book
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| '''án toili''' = some book
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| '''àn toili''' = some books
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| '''hùn toili''' = all books
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| '''hunin toili''' = each book, every book ... in the following discussion I consider "each" and "every" to mean exactly the same.
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| In English, in most instances, "all" and "each" mean the same thing. Both these word indicate "totality" but the second one also indicates "individuality". Because the second one indicates "individuality" the first one came to be associated with "togetherness".
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| But as I said. in English in most situations, "each"<sup>*</sup> and "all" are in free variation. "each" is the word that is used by default.
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| In '''béu''', '''hùn''' is the word used by default. Only when "separateness/individuality" must be emphasised, would you use "hunin". Maybe when you would say "each and every" in English.
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| These 5 words are unusual in that they have "sandhi". Although always written the same, the final "n" is pronounced "ŋ" when the specified noun has an initial "k" or "g". It is pronounced "m" when the specified noun has an initial "p", "b" or "w". However even though "sandhi" occurs, the specifier remains a separate word from the noun that it specifies.
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| <sup>*</sup>"each" being followed by a singular noun and "all" being followed by a plural noun.
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| As well as the 5 specifiers above, we have '''ali''' meaning "a few" or "a little", '''alu''' meaning "many" or "a lot of", '''léu''' meaning "too much" and '''làn''' meaning "enough".
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| HOW DO THESE QUALIFY OTHER PARTS OF SPEACH ??
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| Also '''aufaba''' meaning "two or three" and '''aibaga''' meaning "three or four". Actually any consecutive two numbers ( under 1727) be connected in this way. They must be of the same grade i.e. '''ezaukau''' "eighty or ninety".
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| == ..... Some specifier - generic noun amalgamations ==
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| As would be expect, there has been some fusion between the specifiers and the generic nouns. The total paradigm is shown below ...
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''judai'''
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| |align=center| nothing
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| |align=center| '''ʔindai'''
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| |align=center| anything
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| |align=center| '''andai'''
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| |align=center| something
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| |align=center| '''andaia'''
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| |align=center| somethings
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| |align=center| '''hundai'''
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| |align=center| everything
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| |align=center| '''hunindai'''
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| |align=center| every single thing
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''jubu'''
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| |align=center| nobody
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| |align=center| '''ʔimbu'''
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| |align=center| anybody/anyone
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| |align=center| '''ambu'''
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| |align=center| somebody/someone
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| |align=center| '''ambua'''
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| |align=center| some people
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| |align=center| '''humbu'''
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| |align=center| everybody
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| |align=center| '''hunimbu'''
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| |align=center| every single person
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| |-
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| '''ʔinde'''
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| |align=center| any day
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| |align=center| '''ande'''
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| |align=center| some day
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| |align=center| '''andeu'''
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| |align=center| some days
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| |align=center| '''hunde'''
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| |align=center| ever
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| |align=center| '''huninde'''
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| |align=center| every single day
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| |}
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| Other amalgamations that occur are ...
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''juku'''
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| |align=center| never
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| |align=center| '''juha'''
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| |align=center| nowhere
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| |align=center| '''jumyan'''
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| |align=center| no type of
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| |align=center| '''juwe'''
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| |align=center| in no way
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| |}
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| Note that it is considered bad style to have a '''junandau''' as the O argument. Instead the verb should be negated, and the "any"-word should be used.
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| == ..... The relativizers ==
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| The relativizer in '''béu''' is '''ʔà'''. This takes all the '''pilana''' the same as a normal noun.
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| ----------
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| the basket '''ʔapi''' the cat shat was cleaned by John.
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| the wall '''ʔala''' you are sitting was built by my grandfather.
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| the woman '''ʔaye''' I told the secret, took it to her grave.
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| the town '''ʔafi''' she has come is the biggest south of the mountain.
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| the lilly pad '''ʔalya''' the frog jumped was the biggest in the pond.
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| the boat '''ʔalfe''' you have just jumped is unsound
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| '''báu ʔás timpori glá rà ʔaiho''' = The man that hit the woman is ugly.
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| '''nambo ʔàn''' she lives is the biggest in town.
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| '''báu ʔàn''' dog I shot, reported me to the police = the man whose dog I shot, reported me to the police<sup>*</sup>
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| '''báu ʔaho ò''' is going to market is her husband.
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| the knife '''ʔage''' he severed the branch is a 100 years old
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| The old woman '''ʔaji''' I deliver the newspaper, has died.
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| The boy '''ʔaco''' they are all talking, has gone to New Zealand.
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| -----------
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| When the relative clause is giving extra information, the relativizer in is '''ʔài''' and a slight pause comes before it.
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| There is another relativized in '''béu''' that refers back to a whole proposition. In English "which" is sometimes given this function. For example ...
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| 1) ... John had completely forgotten his wedding anniversary which really annoyed his wife.
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| '''béu''' uses '''nài''' in a similar way to how which is used in the above example. Also the same shorthand form is used for '''nài''' and '''nái'''. However no misunderstanding is possible since '''nài''' always has a pause before it (how do I do a comma ?) and '''nái''' always is immediately after a noun.
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| == ..... Index==
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| {{Béu Index}}
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