Revived Middle Cornish

I, Qwynegold, am writing this article while self-studying Cornish online, as a way of sorting out what I have learned. Maybe others will have use of this as well? I'm expanding the article little by little as I progress in my study. I'm using the online course Kernewek Dre Lyther (KDL), so most references will be of that. There are also some references to the PDF An Outline of the Standard Written Form of Cornish.

Revived Middle Cornish Kernewek
Spoken in:	Cornwall, United Kingdom
World:	Earth
Total speakers:	3,500 (all varieties of Cornish)
Genealogical classification:	Indo-European Celtic Insular Celtic Brythonic Cornish
Basic word order:
Morphological type:
Morphosyntactic alignment:

Phonology and Orthography

There are many different varieties of revived Cornish, and several different orthographies, most notably Unified Cornish (UC), Kernewek Kemmyn (KK) and Standard Written Form (SWF). Kernewek Kemmyn and SWF are presented in the table below.
SWF has something called traditional graphs. For example /ks/ is normally written <KS> in SWF, but it can be substituted for the traditional graph <X>. SWF without traditional graphs has a more straightforward, one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes, while the traditional graphs emulate how Cornish was written during the middle ages. SWF also has something called variant graphs, letters and digraphs that vary depending on which variant of Cornish is being written. Only the variant graphs that are relevant for Revived Middle Cornish are included in this table.

Kernewek Kemmyn and SWF

Kernewek Kemmyn	A	AW	AY	B	CH	D	DH	E	EU	EW	EY	F	G	GGH	GH	H	HW	I	IW	J	K	KK	L	LL	M	MM
SWF														n/a								KK/CK3
SWF with traditional graphs																	WH	I/Y1			K/C2
Pronunciation	/a/	/aʊ/	/aɪ/	/b/	/t͡ʃ/	/d/	/ð/	/ɛ/	/œ/	/ɛʊ/	/ɛɪ/	/f/	/ɡ/	/xː/	/x/	/h/	/ʍ/	/i/	/iʊ/	/d͡ʒ/	/k/	/kː/	/l/	/lː/	/m/	/mː/
Kernewek Kemmyn	N	NN	O	OE	OU	OW	n/a	P	PP	KW	R	RR	S	SH	T	TH	TT	TTH	U	n/a	V	W7	KS	Y	Y	YW
SWF				OO/O4	OU/OO5		OY											n/a		UW							Z
SWF with traditional graphs										QW			S/C6										X
Pronunciation	/n/	/nː/	/ɔ/	/o/	/u/	/ɔʊ/	/ɔɪ/	/p/	/pː/	/kw/	/r/	/rː/	/s/	/ʃ/	/t/	/θ/	/tː/	/θː/	/y/	/yʊ/	/v/	/w/	/ks/	/j/	/ɪ/	/ɪʊ/	/z/

¹Final unstressed /i/ is spelled with <Y>, but /i/ in other contexts is spelled with <I>.
²<C> is used before <A O U L R>, <K> is used in other contexts.
³<CK> is used in loan words for marking that the previous vowel is short. This is used root-finally and therefore realized as [k]. But if <CK> becomes intervocalic due to a suffix being added, it becomes [kː]. See Allophony below.
⁴SWF spells both long /ɔ/ and /o/ ([ɔː] and [oː]) with <O> in some words, while short /ɔ/ and /o/ ([ɔ] and [ɤ]) are always spelled with <O>.
⁵It is unclear when <OO> stands for /o/ and when it stands for /u/.
^6
7SWF has two examples of words where an intervocalic <W> is pronunced as [ʊ] as it forms a diphthong with the previous vowel. But it does not specifically say that <W> cannot ever be [w] in intervocalic position. KDL does not mention anything about it either in its PDFs, and the audio files are inconsistent, pronuncing it [ʊ] in some words and [w] in others.

Allophony

Different sources define the rules for vowel length differently. SWF has the following definitions: Unstressed vowels are short. In monosyllabic words stressed vowels are long when word-final, when followed by a single consonant other than /p/ or /t/, or when followed by one of the clusters /sp, st, sk/. Vowels in stressed monosyllabic words are short when followed by /p/ or /t/, a geminate consonant, or a cluster other than one of /sp, st, sk/. Stressed vowels in polysyllabic words are long in open syllables when followed by a single consonant or one of the clusters /sp, st, sk/. Stressed vowels in polysyllabic words are short before geminate consonants and clusters other than one of /sp, st, sk/. There are some words, most of which are loan words, in which the vowel length does not follow the normal rules.
In this list consonant length has been marked as phonemic and vowel length as unphonemic, although it might be phonemic in some loan words. Consonants can only be long in stressed syllables according to SWF. When stress moves away from a syllable with a geminate, as a suffix is added, this geminate therefore becomes short. SWF also says that word-final plosives cannot be long, but they may become long when they become intervocalic, or appear in V_j, due to a suffix being added. Whether these are then phonemic geminates realized as a short consonants or vice versa, or just alterations between a phonemic long consonants and phonemic short consonants, is a matter of interpretation.

• /a/ has the allophone [ə] when unstressed, [a] when followed by a geminate, and [aː] when stressed according to KDL. According to SWF it is [a] when unstressed or in monosyllabic words in the following positions: _p, _t, _Cː, ˈ_CC !{_sp, _st, _sk}; and [aː] in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_(C)# !{_p, _t}, ˈ_s{p, t, k}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_$C, ˈ_$s{p, t, k}.
• /aʊ/ has the allophone [aʊ].
• /aɪ/ has the allophone [aɪ].
• /b/ has the allophone [p] word-finally unless it is, without a pause, followed by a word beginning with a vowel. The allophone [b] appears in all other contexts. All this according to KDL. SWF only recognizes the allophone [b].
• /t͡ʃ/ has the allophone [tʃ].
• /d/ has the allophone [d]. KDL does not mention anything about /d/, so it is unknown if it should follow the same unvoicing rule as the other voiced obstruents.
• /ð/ has the allophone [θ] word-finally unless it is, without a pause, followed by a word beginning with a vowel. The allophone [ð] appears in all other contexts. All this according to KDL. SWF only recognizes the allophone [ð].
• /ɛ/ has the allophone [ɛ] when unstressed or followed by a geminate, and [ɛː] when stressed or followed by a single consonant. SWF defines the allophone [ɛ] as appearing when unstressed or in monosyllabic words in the following positions: _p, _t, _Cː, ˈ_CC !{_sp, _st, _sk}; and the allophone [ɛː] in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_(C)# !{_p, _t}, ˈ_s{p, t, k}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_$C, ˈ_$s{p, t, k}.
• /œ/ seems to only have the allophone [œː] according to KDL and Wikipedia. SWF defines the allophone [ɛ] as appearing when unstressed; [œ] seemingly in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_p, ˈ_t, ˈ_Cː, ˈ_CC !{_sp, _st, _sk}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_Cː, ˈ_CC; and [œː] in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_(C)# !{_p, _t}, ˈ_s{p, t, k}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_$C, ˈ_$s{p, t, k}.
• /ɛʊ/ has the allophone [ɛʊ].
• /ɛɪ/ has the allophone [ɛɪ].
• /f/ has the allophone [f].
• /ɡ/ has the allophone [k] word-finally unless it is, without a pause, followed by a word beginning with a vowel. The allophone [ɡ] appears in all other contexts. All this according to KDL. SWF only recognizes the allophone [ɡ].
• /x/ has only the allophone [x] according to KDL. According to SWF it is [h] intervocalically, and [x] elsewhere. It is in complimentary distribution with /h/ everywhere but word-initially or after a consonant.
• /h/ has the allophone [h].
• /ʍ/ has the allophone [ʍ].
• /i/ has the long allophone [iː], and the short allophone [i] according to SWF, while KDL and Wikipedia seem to suggest that it doesn't have a short counterpart.
• /iʊ/ has the allophone [iʊ]. KDL seems to suggest that it is [iːʊ], but that might stem from a confusion about the difference between length and tenseness, as this is not supported by its sound files.
• /d͡ʒ/ has the allophone [d͡ʒ]. KDL does not mention anything about /d͡ʒ/, so it is unknown if it should follow the same unvoicing rule as the other voiced obstruents.
• /k/ has the allophone [k].
• /kː/ has the allophone [kː] when stressed and [k] when unstressed.
• /l/ has the allophone [l].
• /lː/ has the allophone [lː] when stressed and [l] when unstressed.
• /m/ has the allophone [m].
• /mː/ has the allophone [mː] when stressed and [m] when unstressed. According to KDL [ᵇm] is an acceptable substitute for [mː], but SWF says that it is only used in (Revived) Late Cornish.
• /n/ has the allophone [n]. Neither KDL or SWF mentions anything about nasal assimilation, but that might not necessarily mean that it does not exist.
• /nː/ has the allophone [nː] when stressed and [n] when unstressed. According to KDL [ᵈn] is an acceptable substitute for [nː], but SWF says that it is only used in (Revived) Late Cornish.
• /ɔ/ has the allophone [ɔ] when followed by a geminate or consonant cluster, and allophone [ɔː] elsewhere. SWF defines the allophone [ɔ] as appearing when unstressed or in monosyllabic words in the following positions: _p, _t, _Cː, ˈ_CC !{_sp, _st, _sk}; and the allophone [ɔː] in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_(C)# !{_p, _t}, ˈ_s{p, t, k}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_$C, ˈ_$s{p, t, k}.
• /o/ has the short allophone [ɤ] and the long allophone [oː]. SWF defines the allophone [ɤ] as appearing when unstressed or in monosyllabic words in the following positions: _p, _t, _Cː, ˈ_CC !{_sp, _st, _sk}; and the allophone [oː] in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_(C)# !{_p, _t}, ˈ_s{p, t, k}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_$C, ˈ_$s{p, t, k}.
• /u/ seems to only have the allophone [uː] according to KDL and Wikipedia. SWF seems to define the allophone [u] as appearing when unstressed or in monosyllabic words in the following positions: _p, _t, _Cː, ˈ_CC !{_sp, _st, _sk}; and the allophone [uː] in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_(C)# !{_p, _t}, ˈ_s{p, t, k}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_$C, ˈ_$s{p, t, k}.
• /ɔʊ/ has the allophone [ɔʊ].
• /ɔɪ/ mostly the allophone [ɔɪ], but according to SWF it can be [ʊɪ] in a few open monosyllabic words. KDL does not mention the existence of a phoneme /ɔɪ/, and <OY> seems to be pronunced as two vowels, /ɔ/ and /ɪ/, in hiatus.
• /p/ has the allophone [p].
• /pː/ has the allophone [pː] when stressed and [p] when unstressed.
• /r/ has the allophone [r] according to KDL and SWF. But according to Wikipedia it is [ɾ].
• /rː/ has the allophone [rː] when stressed and [r] when unstressed.
• /s/ has the allophone [s] word-initially and before a voiceless plosive, [sː] when geminated, and [z] elsewhere.
• /ʃ/ has the allophone [ʃ].
• /t/ has the allophone [t].
• /tː/ has the allophone [tː] when stressed and [t] when unstressed.
• /θ/ has the allophone [θ].
• /y/ seems to only have the allophone [yː] according to KDL and Wikipedia. SWF defines the allophone [ɪ] as appearing when unstressed; [y] seemingly in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_p, ˈ_t, ˈ_Cː, ˈ_CC !{_sp, _st, _sk}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_Cː, ˈ_CC; and [yː] in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_(C)# !{_p, _t}, ˈ_s{p, t, k}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_$C, ˈ_$s{p, t, k}.
• /yʊ/ has the allophone [yʊ]. It is only found in three different roots. KDL does not recognize this phoneme at all.
• /v/ has the allophone [f] word-finally unless it is, without a pause, followed by a word beginning with a vowel. The allophone [v] appears in all other contexts. All this according to KDL. SWF only recognizes the allophone [v].
• /w/ has the allophone [w].
• /j/ has the allophone [j].
• /ɪ/ has the short allophone [ɪ] and the long allophone /ɪː/. SWF defines the allophone [ɪ] as appearing when unstressed or in monosyllabic words in the following positions: _p, _t, _Cː, ˈ_CC !{_sp, _st, _sk}; and the allophone [ɪː] in monosyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_#, ˈ_C !{_p, _t}, ˈ_s{p, t, k}, as well as in polysyllabic words in the following positions: ˈ_$C, ˈ_$s{p, t, k}.
• /ɪʊ/ has the allophone [ɪʊ].
• /z/ has the allophone [z].

Initial Mutation

In Cornish, some words cause the initial consonant of the following word to change. This is called mutation. There are five different types of mutation in Cornish, called soft, breathed, hard, mixed and mixed after Th, referring to the sound changes involved. These are numbered 2-6, and are usually just referred to by their number. For example dhe² means that the word dhe causes soft mutation in the following word. (There are some words that cause mutation only to some types of words, such as an⁽²⁾ which mutates feminine nouns. These words are marked with a number in paranthesis in this article.)
This table shows which sounds change into what in different mutation states. A dash means that the sound is elided. For example the word gramasek becomes ramasek in second state (soft) mutation. Also note that each of these phonemes do not change in every mutation state. (These are grayed out.)

Mutation Table

1 Unmutated	2 Soft	3 Breathed	4 Hard	5 Mixed	6 Mixed after Th
B	V	B	P	F	V
Ch	J	Ch	Ch	Ch	Ch
D	Dh	D	T	T	T
G+{a, e, i, y}	-	G	K	H	H
G+{o, u, ro, ru}	W	G	K	Hw	W
G+{l, r}	-	G	K	G	G
Gw	W	Gw	Kw	Hw	W
K	G1	H2	K	K	K
M	V	M	M	F	V
P	B1	F	P	P	P
T	D1	Th	T	T	T

¹No change if the previous word ends with S or Th.
²No change if followed by L, N or R.

Morphology

Nouns

There are two genders in Cornish: Masculine and feminine. The majority of all nouns are masculine.

Articles

There was a word unn that was sometimes used as an indefinite article in old Cornish texts, but Revived Cornish seldomly use any indefinite article. There is a definite article, an⁽²⁾. It is often conjoined with other words, e.g. y'n⁽²⁾ (in the), ha'n⁽²⁾ (and the). This article causes second state mutation in a following singular feminine noun, and in the numerals dew² and diw².

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

	Singular	Plural
1st person	my I	ni we
2nd person	ty you	hwi you
3rd person	ev he/it	i they
	hi she/it

These are subject pronouns used in nominative sentences (with the particles a² and Re²).
Cornish has a T-V distinction, in that hwi can also be used as a polite form of address towards a single person. But this usage is becoming more and more uncommon in modern language.

Prepositions

Just as the other Insular Celtic languages, Cornish too has inflected prepositions. In the case of Cornish, this is a fusion of a preposition and a pronoun. But one can consider it to be the case that the prepositions are inflected for person.

Gans - With

Gans (with) is used as a comitative preposition (see Possession for examples).

Person Inflection of gans

	Singular	Plural
1st person	genev with me	genen with us
2nd person	genes with you	genowgh with you
3rd person	ganso with him/it	gansa with them
	gensi with her/it

Gans is inflected for person according to the above table. So for example "I work with them" translates as My a ober gansa rather than *My a ober gans i. See also Possession. So an unfused personal pronoun never follows gans. The bare form gans is however used when it is followed by a noun.

Kinyow gans korev.
kinyow	gans	korev
dinner	with	beer
Dinner with beer.

Dhe² - To; At

Dhe² is pronunced [ðə], and has meanings similar to English "to" and "at".

Person inflection of dhe²

	Singular	Plural
1st person	dhymm to me	dhyn to us
2nd person	dhis to you	dhywgh to you
3rd person	dhodho to him/it	dhedha to them
	dhedhi to her/it

Dhe² inflects for person according to the above table. So for example "I sent a letter to you" translates as My a dhannvonas lyther dhis rather than *My a dhannvonas lyther dhe dy. See also Possession. So dhe² is never followed by an unfused personal pronoun, instead, this form is used when it is followed by a noun.

Anjela eth dhe werthji.
Anjela	eth	dhe	AGR\gwerthji
Anjela	go.PST.3SG	to	AGR\shop
Anjela went to a store.

But the corresponding pronoun can actually be added after the inflected preposition for adding greater emphasis.

Yma soedhva dhyn ni ynwedh!
yma	soedhva	dhyn	ni	ynwedh
be	office	at.1PL	we	also
We have an office too!

Adjectives

Adjectives follow the noun they modify. Adjectives following singular feminine nouns take mutation form 2.

Verbs

Tense

Present tense is unmarked. Some verbs take the suffix -as, and some take -is, for forming the past tense. And some verbs are irregular.

Verb Tenses

Type of Verb	Present Tense	Past Tense
-as	Ty a2 dhannvon You send	Ty a2 dhannvonas You sent
-is	Ty a2 gews You speak	Ty a2 gewsis You spoke
Irregular	Ty a2 woer You know	Ty a2 wodhva You knew

Aspect

For perfect aspect, see Re² - Perfect Aspect Particle.

Verbal Nouns (Infinitives)

Infinitives, or verbal nouns or verb-nouns as they are usually called in Cornish grammar, are derived in a variety of ways from the verbs basic form. See Verbal Nouns and Their Usage.

Copulas

Cornish has two copulas: One that tells who, what or how something is, and one that tells where something is. The former one is yw in the third person singular form.

An vro yw Pow Frynk.
an	AGR\bro	yw	Pow.Frynk
DEF	AGR\country	be.3SG	France
The country is France.

A third person singular subject pronoun may be dropped when yw is used, in which case yw is placed after its complement.

Ki yw.
ki	yw
dog	be.3SG
He/she/it is a dog.

Yma is the copula that tells where something is. Yma is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.

Yma Truru yn Kernow.
yma	Truru	yn	Kernow
be	Truro	in	Cornwall
Truro is in Cornwall.

No distinction is made between "is" and "there is" as in English.

Yma gwerthji y'n dre.
yma	gwerthji	y'n	AGR\tre
be	shop	in.DEF	AGR\town
There is a shop in the town.

Irregular Verbs

Gul - To Do; To Make

To do; to make

		Past tense	Present tense
1st person	Singular
	Plural
2nd person	Singular
	Plural
3rd person	Singular		gwra
	Plural
Infinitive		gul

Mos - To Go

To go

		Past tense	Present tense
1st person	Singular
	Plural
2nd person	Singular
	Plural
3rd person	Singular	eth	a
	Plural
Infinitive		mos

Mos (to go) has several suppletive forms as can be seen from the above table. Some forms of mos cause changes to certain particles preceding it:

• The positive polarity particle a² is omitted before eth (go.PST.3SG) and a (go.PRS.3SG).
• The negative polarity particle ny² becomes nyns before a and eth.
• The perfect particle re² becomes res before eth.

Particles

A² - Positive Polarity Item

The particle a² is used before verbs in nominal sentences to mark for affirmative polarity.

Hi a skrif dhe goweth.
hi	a	skrif	dhe	AGR\koweth
she	PPI	write	to	AGR\friend
She writes to a friend.

Ny² - Negative Polarity Item

Ny² is used for marking negative polarity. Sentences with ny² are considered to be verbal and not nominal. Ny² is only used with third person singular subjects.

Ny gews ev Sowsnek.
ny	AGR\kews	ev	Sowsnek
NPI	AGR\speak	he	English
He doesn't speak English.

Usually the subject is placed after the verb. It can be placed before also, in which case the subject is strongly emphasized.

My ny werth lyvrow.
my	ny	AGR\gwerth	lyvrow
I	NPI	sell	books
I don't sell books (but someone else might).

When a subject is emphasized like this, the past tense suffix of the verb agrees with the subject. (No agreement happens when the verb is positive, in present tense, or if the subject follows the verb.)

Re² - Perfect Aspect Particle

Re² is used instead of a² for forming the perfect aspect. It can be used with both present and past tense, but not with negative polarity. In negative verbs, simple and perfect are simply not distinguished.

My re oberas yn soedhva.
my	re	ober-as	yn	soedhva
I	PRF	work-PST	in	office
I have worked in an office.

A⁽²⁾ - Vocative Particle

A⁽²⁾ is optionally used before names or titles when calling out to someone. For example a letter may begin with A Yowann ker - Dear Yowann. This particle causes soft mutation in adjectives and common nouns, but not in proper nouns.

Conjunctions

The word corresponding to English "and" has two allomorphs: Ha and hag. Ha is used before words beginning with a consonant, and hag before words beginning with a vowel. This word conjoins with certain other words.

And

Conjoined Morpheme	Resulting Word
ha(g) and
an(2) the	ha'n(2) [ˈhaːn] and the
y2 his	ha'y2 [ˈhaːɪ] and his

Numerals

Numbers

	Counting number	Masculine attributive	Feminine attributive
1	onan	unn	unn2
2	dew2		diw2
3	tri3		teyr3
4	peswar		peder
5	pymp
6	hwegh
7	seyth
8	eth
9	naw
10	deg

When just counting, e.g. "one... two... three... four... five...", the numbers in the first column is used. Number one is special in that it has a specific form, onan, only used in this situation. Some numerals have different forms depending on if they are modifying a masculine or feminine noun. Two, three, and four have the allomorphs dew², tri³, and peswar, respectively, when modifying a masculine noun, and diw², teyr³, peder when modifying a feminine noun. Dew² and diw² cause second state mutation, and tri³ and teyr³ cause third state mutation on the following noun. Number one is called unn regardless of the noun's gender, but it causes second state mutation on feminine nouns, while masculine nouns are not affected. The rest of the numbers have only one form, and do not cause mutation. The modified noun stays in singular, even after numbers bigger than one.

Yma diw wreg, dew vab, ha peder myrgh dhodho.
yma	diw	AGR\gwreg	dew	AGR\mab	ha	peder	myrgh	dhodho
be	two.F	AGR\wife	two.M	AGR\son	and	four.F	daughter	to.3SG.M
He has two wives, two sons, and four daughters.

The forms in the counting number/masculine attributive column are the default forms, i.e. when not used in either of the ways described above.

Ev re niveras dhe dri!
ev	re	nivera-s	dhe	AGR\tri
he	PRF	count-PST	to	AGR\three
He has counted to three!

Dew² and diw² take second state mutation when preceded by an⁽²⁾.

Yma an dhew byskador dhe'n mor.
yma	an	AGR\dew	AGR\pyskador	dhe'n	mor
be	DEF	AGR\two.M	AGR\fisherman	at.DEF	sea
The two fishermen are at the sea.

Syntax

Word Order

In some constructions in Cornish, a word may be moved to the beginning of the sentence to give it more emphasis. Ev yw ki and ki yw ev both mean "it is a dog", but the latter sentence adds more emphasis to the word dog - "it is a dog and not some other animal". See also Ny² - Negative Polarity Item and Can and Cannot.

Possession

There is no genitive morpheme in Cornish. Instead possession is shown by simply placing the possessor after the possessee.

Kok an pyskador.
kok	an	pyskador
fishing.boat	DEF	fisherman
The fisherman's fishing boat.

Have-constructions, e.g. "X has Y", are construed as yma Y dhe² X.

Yma kok dhe byskador.
yma	kok	dhe	AGR\pyskador
be	fishing.boat	to	AGR\fisherman
A fisherman has a fishing boat.

This literally translates as "there is a fishing boat to a fisherman". Dhe² combines with personal pronouns however.

Yma chi dhodho.
yma	chi	dhodho
be	house	to.3SG.M
He has a house.

There is another construction very similar to yma Y dhe² X, but with gans (with) instead of dhe². It describes a looser association than actual ownership.

Yma myrgh gans benyn.
yma	myrgh	gans	benyn
be	daughter	with	woman
There is a woman with a daughter.

Gans also combines with pronouns.

Yma myrgh gensi.
yma	myrgh	gensi
be	daughter	with.3SG.F
She is with a daughter.

Verbal Nouns and Their Usage

Can and Cannot

"I can" translates as y⁵ hallav, and "I can't" as ny² allav. Both call for a verbal noun.

Ny allav triga omma.
ny.AGR\gallav	trig-a	omma
I.cannot	live-INF	here
I can't live here.

Y hallav skrifa dhis yn skon.
y.AGR\gallav	skrif-a	dhis	yn.skon
I.can	write-INF	to.2SG	soon
I can write to you soon.

Y⁵ hallav implies that one can do something because of physical ability, or because one is allowed to. If one can do something because one has learned to do it, usually y⁵ hwonn or my a² woer is used instead. My a² woer makes a nominal sentence, and emphasizes the subject, while y⁵ hwonn is more neutral.

Y hwonn kewsel Kernewek.
y.hwonn	kews-el	Kernewek
I.know	speak-INF	Cornish
I can speak Cornish.

My a woer kewsel Kernewek.
my	a	woer	kews-el	Kernewek
I	PPI	know	speak-INF	Cornish
I can speak Cornish.

Verbal Nouns with Adjectives

A sentence of the form "I am happy/sad to VERB", for example "I am happy to learn Cornish", makes use of the following construction: Lowen/trist ov vy dhe² VERB-INF.

​ Lowen ov vy dhe dhyski Kernewek.
lowen	ov.vy	dhe	AGR\dysk-i	Kernewek
happy	I.am	to	AGR\learn-INF	Cornish
I am happy to learn Cornish.

Trist ov vy dhe wertha ow hi.
trist	ov.vy	dhe	AGR\gwertha	ow	AGR\ki
sad	I.am	to	AGR\sell.INF	my	AGR\dog
I am sad to sell my dog.

Gul - To Do/Make

The verb gul means to do, or to make, and is used as an auxiliary. It is used for making alternative forms of verbs, by placing it in front of a verbal noun.

​ Hi a wra godhvos.
hi	a	AGR\gwra	godhvos
she	PPI	AGR\do.PRS.3SG	know.INF
She knows/She do know.

A² wra is its third singular present positive form. If the subject is third singular, the sentence can be negated by using ny² wra instead. Ny² wra can be placed either before or after the subject, but putting it before the subject is more common.

​ Ny wra Peder oberi yn koffiji.						=	Peder ny wra oberi yn koffiji.
ny	AGR\gwra	Peder	ober-i	yn	koffiji	=	Peder	ny	AGR\gwra	ober-i	yn	koffiji
NPI	AGR\do.PRS.3SG	Peder	work-INF	in	café	=	Peder	NPI	AGR\do.PRS.3SG	work-INF	in	café
Peder does not work at a café.

Going Somewhere to Do Something

These kinds of constructions are made with mos followed by dhe² and a verbal noun.

​ Jyll eth dhe an dre dhe gavoes nebes lyvrow.
Jyll	eth	dhe	an	AGR\tre	dhe	AGR\kavoes	nebes	lyvrow
Jyll	go.PST.3SG	to	DEF	AGR\town	to	AGR\get	few	books
Jyll went to town to get a few books.

References

This article is one of quite a few pages about Natlangs. Indo-european natlangs: Balto-Slavic Natlangs: Czech * Russian Celtic Natlangs: Revived Middle Cornish * Pictish Germanic Natlangs: North Germanic Natlangs: Norwegian West Germanic Natlangs: Anglo-Saxon * Dutch * English (Old English * Middle English * Modern English * Scots) * German (High German * Low German) Indo-Iranian Natlangs: Pahlavi Italic Natlangs: French * Italian * Latin * Spanish Debated: Cimmerian Uralic Natlangs: Finnish * Khanty * Mansi * Mordvinic * Proto-Uralic Altaic (controversial): Japanese Sino-Tibetan Natlangs: Uto-Aztecan Natlangs: Nahuatl - Isolate Natlangs: Basque * * Hypothetical/debated Natlangs and Natlang families: Danubian * Europic (obsolete)