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| == ..... The '''-ana''' suffix==
| | {{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}} |
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| This suffix, added to a verb, gives a noun. For example ...
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| '''kludau''' = to write
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| '''kludana''' = writer/author
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| == ..... The '''béu''' participles and the NP with the present participle core==
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| There are three participles in '''béu'''. They are known as '''plofai''' in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition.
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| A participle is an adjective that has been derived from a verb.
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| Taking '''kludau''' (to write) to demonstrate these participles.
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| 1) '''kludi''' is an adjective meaning "written"
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| '''toili kludi''' = the written book ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in '''béu''' ... '''kludi''' => a thing that is written => a note
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| 2) '''kludu''' is an adjective meaning "that must be written"
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| '''toili kludu''' = "the book that must be written" or "the book that should be written" ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in '''béu''' ... '''kludu''' => that which must be written => a (school) assignment
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| 3) '''kludaula''' is an adjective meaning "writing at this moment".
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| Now '''kludaula''' is definitely an adjective.
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| '''kludaula toili''' "reading a book" is an adjective phrase (AP) in which the noun '''toili''' qualifies the adjective '''kludaula'''.
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| (If you remember, usually '''béu''' does not like a '''pilana''' making any phrase non-contiguous. -'''la''' suffixing to a '''gomia''' is an exception to this rule)
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| Now the phrase '''jono kludaula toili''' is a noun phrase (NP) in which the AP qualifies the noun '''jono'''
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| (Notice that in the clause that corresponds to the above NP, '''jonos kludora toili''' (John is reading the book), '''jono''' has the ergative suffix and the 3 words can occur in any order : with the NP, '''jono''' does not take the ergative suffix and the 3 words must occur in the order shown.)
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| Now the question is where is this special NP used. Well it is used in situations where English would use a complement clause. For example with '''algo''' meaning "to think about",<sup>*</sup>
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| 1) '''algara jono''' = I am thinking about John.
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| 2) '''algara jono kludaula toili''' = I am thinking about John writing a book.
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| Note ... According to Dixon, the standard English translation of 2) would be "I am thinking about John's writing a book" which I find quite strange even though English is my mother tongue. I have decided to call this sort of construction in '''béu''' a special kind of NP, while Dixon has called the equivalent expression in English the "-ing" type of complement clause. I think this is just a naming thing and doesn't really matter.
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| <sup>*</sup>"to think (that)" is '''alhu''' in '''béu'''. '''alhu''' also translates "to believe".
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| == ..... A discussion of English participles==
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| Now English has two participles, the "active participle" and the "passive participle".
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| They appear as adjectives (of course, an adjective derived from a noun is the definition of "a participle"), however both forms also appear in verb phrases. If you are given a clause out of context it is sometimes impossible to tell if the participle is acting as an adjective or as part of a verb phrase. For example ... first the "active participle" ...
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| 1) The writing man
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| 2) The man is writing
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| 3) The man is writing a book
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| In 1) "writing" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "writing" and the sentence makes perfect sense.
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| As for 2) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.
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| For 3) ... No not an adjective "The man is green a book" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 3) is that "is writing" is a verb phrase (one that has given progressive meaning to the verb "write"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 2). The proper analysis of this could be that "is writing" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 2) is embedded (and even then, there would be certain situations when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).
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| ... now the "passive participle" ...
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| 1) The broken piano
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| 2) The piano is broken
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| 3) The piano was broken
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| 4) The piano was broken by the monkey
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| In 1) and 2) "broken" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "broken" and the sentence makes perfect sense.
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| As for 3) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.
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| For 4) ... No not an adjective "The piano was green by the monkey" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 4) is that "was broken" is a verb phrase (one that has given passive meaning to the ambitransitive verb "break"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 3). The proper analysis of this could be that "was broken" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 3) is embedded (and even then, there would be certain situations<sup>*</sup> when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).
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| <sup>*</sup>The five-week deadlock between striking Peugeot workers and their employer was broken yesterday when the management obtained a court order to end a 10-day sit-in at one of the two factories in eastern France, Sarah Lambert writes.
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| I would say either analysis is valid for the above sentence.
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| == ..... Start, Stop, Try==
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| In '''béu''', three secondary verbs (in English) are expressed by a copula plus a '''pilana'''. They are ...
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| to start drinking => '''láu solbelya'''
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| to stop drinking => '''láu solbelfe'''
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| to try drinking => '''sàu solbewo'''
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| And just to demonstrate that the above doesn't necessary lead to confusion ...
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| He talks about drinking => '''cator solbewo'''
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| We talk about trying to drink => '''catair wo sàu solbewo'''
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| So in fact the '''gomia''' take 8 of the 12 '''pilana''' ... '''ji ge n ho la lfe lya wo'''
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| The ergative '''s''' also occurs but only in its prepositional form '''sá'''
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| == ..... Want==
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| If then the
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| 1) '''wár bái nambo''' => I want to go home
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| 2) '''wár bís nambo''' => I want you to go home
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| 3) '''wár timpis ò''' => I want you to hit her/him
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| 4) '''wár tà (gìs) timpirwa ò''' => I wish that you had hit her/him .... Note that we have '''timpirwa''' and not '''timpirwi'''
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| So in the above ... the construction as in 1) is used when the person doing the wanting, is also the subject (A or O) of the action required and the second action sort of "follows on" from the "wanting".
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| The construction as in 2) and 3) is used when the person doing the wanting is different from the subject (A or O) of the action required. The second action again sort of "following on" from the "wanting".
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| The construction as in 4) is used when the person doing the wanting is different from the subject (A or O) of the action required AND the second action DOES NOT "following on" from the "wanting".
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| TO THINK ABOUT
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| ---------------
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| Now we have said before that '''béu''' has free word order, however this really only applies to the verb in R-form (R) and the S argument in an intransitive clause, and the R, A and O in a transitive clause. When you have a verb in '''gomia'''-form (G), in the subjunctive form (Sub) or in the imperative form (Imp), you must have these elements in the following order ;-
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| S G : S Sub ... the last of these (S -S ) is quite unusual. Maybe can have S I ... but then S must be in vocative case
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| A G O : A Sub O : Imp O ... expand this and make it look good. Maybe can have A I O ... but then A must be in vocative case
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| -----
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| In the '''béu''' linguistic tradition, a clause that has one R verb in it, or one N verb, or one I verb is called '''aʒiŋko baga''' or a simple clause. Any clause that has an R verb plus an G or N, verb is called a '''aʒiŋko kaza''' or a complex clause.
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| == ..... -'''am'''- as a none-productive infix==
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| '''klói''' = to see
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| '''klamoi''' = to show
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| '''tàu''' = to know
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| '''tamau''' = to tell
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| '''fyu''' = to fly
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| '''fyamu''' = to throw
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| '''gwoi''' = to jump (involuntarily), to give a start
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| '''gwamoi''' = to make somebody jump, to give somebody a start
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| '''doika''' = walk
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| '''damoika''' = to manage, to run ......... '''damoikanai''' = "the management" or "the managers"
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| == ..... The Imperative==
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| In '''béu''' it is called "order"-form/shape.
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| This form is used for giving orders. With the s-form you definitely want some action to happen (and you don't expect a discussion about it).
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| Up until now, 7 protagonists have been expressed in every verb. With the s-form however only two protagonists can be expressed.
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| '''doikiwa''' = walk (when talking to one person)
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| '''doikewa''' = walk (when talking to more than one person)
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| Note that the verb '''au''' "to take, has the imperative forms '''wiwa''' and '''wewa'''.
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| Very occasionally the form '''doikawa''' is heard. When somebody has difficulty preforming some task the may "order" themselves to do it. But you could say this is an "unofficial" usuage.
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| == ..... Verb chains==
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| Even though the '''gomia''' can be considered proper nouns, they obey different rules of syntax compared to normal nouns.
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| They never have the '''-s''' suffix (perhaps they can have the '''sá''' preposition).
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| We have already discussed the type B noun phrase that they can part of.
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| They do not take all the '''pilana'''. However they occur with '''ge''' and '''ji''' quite a lot. Corresponding to "by" and "in order to/to".
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| He passed his exams "cheat".'''ge''' = He past his exams by cheating
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| He went to the river "swim".'''ji''' = He went to the river to swim. .... note that '''ye''' woold also be acceptible here as well
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| They also occur with '''n''' and '''ho''' however the meaning that these suffixes add are a bit different with '''gomia'''.
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| When '''n''' is added to '''gomia''' it means that the verb is a second or later verb in a verb chain. The tense, aspect and evidentiality is the same as the initial verb. Also the subject (i.e. S or A) is the same as the subject of the initial verb.
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| When '''ho''' is added to '''gomia''' it means that the verb is a second or later verb in a verb chain. The tense, aspect and evidentiality is the same as the initial verb. Also the subject (i.e. S or A) is the same as the object of the initial verb.
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| Examples of the usuage of '''n'''
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| '''bawas bura nambo laulan halfan''' => The men are going home singing and laughing T ... N ... N
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| '''bawas bura nambo nà laula lauloi halfan''' => The men are going home singing songs and laughing T ... T ... N
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| '''bawas bura nambo laulan nà halfa jonowo''' => The men are going home singing and laughing about John T ... N ... T
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| Could this be a good test for transitivity in '''béu''' ?? ... '''-n''' or '''nà''' ???
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| This is used when things happen at the same time and the subject of all the verbs is the same. Notice that the '''n'''-forms can come after the r-form verb.
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| It is not really important which verb comes first, perhaps the one considered the most relevant/important should come first.
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| The three verbs above sort of amalgamate into a single verb. The actions should be considered a single event.
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| In the examples above the three constituent verbs of the verb chain happen at the same time but this is not always the case. In the example below the constituent verbs happen one after the other.
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| '''wewa hufu báin kyén jonoye''' = Take the sheep and give it to John.
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| Examples of the usuage of '''ho'''
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| Verbs that commonly come at the end of a verb chain.
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| For example ...... gàu = to descend, jompai = to rub …. in verb chains, the person, tense/aspect and evidentuality must be the same on every verb, but the idea of transitivity is fluid ??? For example ... jompara shi gàuho = "I am rubbing it down", jompai = "a rubbing", gàu = "a desent", gàujompai = erosion (word building ??)
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| You would say "The rain erodes the mountain-range" rather than "The rain rubs the mountain-range down" because the "real" meaning of "rub" involves something solid against a something rigid.
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| I came and saw her => '''kari nà ò klói''' N ... T
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| I came to see her = I came in order to see her => '''kari jí ò klói'''
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| I saw her and went => '''klari ò báin''' T ... N
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| I saw her and she went ''' => '''klari ò baiho'''
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| == ..... The Subjunctive or the irrealis==
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| In '''béu''' it is called "suggest"-form/shape.
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| You change the "r" to an "s" basically. Nothing comes after the "s". So there is no tense/aspect or evidentiality expressed on this verb form.
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| When this form is used in a main clause, you are gently urging some action (and you are definitely open to discussion about it).
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| For example ;-
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| doikain = Let's walk
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| ------------------
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| It is also used in the '''ibla'''/'''jú''' construction. When the first condition can now no longer be met and hence the second part can not be also.
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| ibla "ask"in pà jú "tell"an gì = If you had asked me, I would have told you
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| ------------------
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| It is also used in other places .... for example, after the verbs "want", "
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| Often occurs when in English we have "would".
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| == ..... Complements
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| == ..... To think about==
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| Further uses of the "s" form of the verb. That is the subjunctive.
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| Also used in dependent clauses with the meaning ...
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| that xxx should yyy.
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| Used after "want/hope/believe ?" if the subject is different. If subject is the same then the verb is in the '''gomia''' form.
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| -------------------
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| hear, see, think, like, remember, know, believe | use '''tà + full verb''' with FACT complements.
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| hear, see, like, remember | use '''gomia''' with ACTION complements (English would use "-ing")
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| Sometimes when English would use the "to" construction, '''béu''' would use the -'''u''' participle | remember
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| == Some rubbish==
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| '''poma''' = leg
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| '''pomas''' = to kick, '''pomari''' = I kicked
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| '''pomaswan''' = liable to kick, fond of kicking
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| '''pomonda''' = good to kick
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| '''klonda''' = worth seeing
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| To fix up this bit.....Of course we can make two clauses, and have the second clause one element inside the first clause. To do that you must use the particle '''tà'''. Equivalent to one of the uses of "that" in English. '''tà''' basically tells you that the following clause should be treated like a single element, like a single noun.
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| I should mention '''sá tà ...'''
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| ---------------------------------------
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| '''solbe''' = to drink
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| '''heŋgo''' = to live (or it could mean "a life")
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| '''soŋkau''' = to die (or it could mean "death")
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| '''glabu''' = person
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| '''moze''' = water
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| '''moʒi''' = steam
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| '''heŋgola''' = alive, living
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| '''soŋki''' = dead
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| == ..... KENKO==
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| '''keŋko''' = salt ... base form ... noun
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| '''keŋkua''' = salty ... adjective
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| '''keŋkia''' = salt-free ... adjective
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| '''keŋkari''' = I added salt ... verb (transitive)
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| '''keŋkos''' = to add salt
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| '''kenkoska''' = to not add salt
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| == ..... Examples of prepositions==
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| move these somewhere else
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| '''ilai''' = between
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| '''geka''' = without
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| '''mú''' = outside of
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| '''muka''' = outside
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| '''pika''' = inside
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| -------
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| '''pòi''' = to enter or to put in
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| '''piwa nambo''' = go into the house
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| '''wiwa toilia di poiho toilicoi''' = put these book in the bookcase
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| '''wiwa toilia di pòin nambo''' = take these book into the house
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| '''wiwa toilia di pòin nambo kyén jeneye''' = take these book into the house and give to Jane
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| -------
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| '''méu''' = to exit or to take out ... I guess cat must be '''mèu'''
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| '''miwa nambo báin''' = come out of the house, get out of the house
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| == .... -NI, NAI and -GO==
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| pronounced
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| |align=center| operation
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| |align=center| label
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| |align=center| example
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''-nai'''
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| |align=center| adjective => noun
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| |align=center| "-ness" or "-ity"
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| |align=center| '''boinai''' = goodness
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''-go'''
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| |align=center| noun => adjective, plus adjective => adjective, plus verb => adjective
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| |align=center| "ish"
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| |align=center| '''gla.go''' = effeminate, '''hia.go''' = reddish, '''bla.go''' = quarrelsome
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| |}
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''gèu'''
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| |align=center| green
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| |align=center| '''geunai'''
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| |align=center| greenness
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''juga'''
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| |align=center| wide
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| |align=center| '''jugani'''
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| |align=center| width
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''tumu'''
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| |align=center| stupid
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| |align=center| '''tumuni'''
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| |align=center| stupidity
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''bòi'''
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| |align=center| good
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| |align=center| '''boinai'''
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| |align=center| goodness
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''mutu'''
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| |align=center| important
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| |align=center| '''mutumni'''
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| |align=center| importance
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| |}
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| '''-go'''
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| '''gó''' = to resemble, to be like
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| '''gó dó''' = to be the exact image of
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| '''gla.go''' = effeminate, '''hia.go''' = reddish, '''bla.go''' = quarrelsome
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| Sometimes the '''-go''' derived words have negative connotations, as in '''gal.go'''
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| There is a suffix '''-ka''' (notice it is not considered a '''pilana'''), that often has a positive connotation, sometimes making a couplet with a '''-go''' derived word. For example ;-
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| '''gla.ka''' = womanly
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| '''kài''' = to appear, to seem
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| '''kò''' = appearance
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| ==..... Getting the opposite by adding "u"==
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| ===.... A prefix for adjectives===
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| '''taitau''' = many
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| '''utaitau''' = few
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| '''mutu''' = important
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| '''umutu''' = unimportant
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| ===.... and a prefix for adverb===
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| '''nan''' = for a long time
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| '''unan''' = not for a long time
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| ===.... and a prefix for nouns===
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| '''mezna''' = to fight
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| '''meznana''' = combatant
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| '''umeznana''' = non-combatant
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| As in English, not found that often. Sometimes found in rule books.
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| ===.... but an infix for verbs===
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| There is a reason why we do not simply prefix '''u''' to the verbs also.
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| '''kanja''' = to fold
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| '''kunjana''' = "folding" (an adjective) or "one that folds" (a noun)
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| '''ukunjana''' = "one that doesn't fold"
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| Suppose we did simply prefix '''u''' to the verb. Then "to unfold" would be '''ukanja''', and hence '''ukanjana''' would be a noun meaning "one that unfolds". But if you look up a bit, you can see that this form ('''ukanjana''') already has the meaning "one that doesn't fold". This would cause confusion.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''kunja'''
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| |align=center| to fold
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| |align=center| '''kunjua'''
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| |align=center| to unfold
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''laiba'''
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| |align=center| to cover
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| |align=center| '''laibua'''
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| |align=center| to uncover
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''fuŋga'''
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| |align=center| to fasten, to lock
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| |align=center| '''fuŋgua'''
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| |align=center| to unfasten, to unlock
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''benda'''
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| |align=center| to assemble, to put together
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| |align=center| '''bendua'''
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| |align=center| to take apart, to disassemble
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''pauca'''
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| |align=center| to stop up, to block
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| |align=center| '''paucua'''
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| |align=center| to unstop
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''sensa'''
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| |align=center| to weave
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| |align=center| '''sensua'''
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| |align=center| to unravel
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''fiŋka'''
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| |align=center| to put on clothes, to dress
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| |align=center| '''fiŋkua'''
| |
| |align=center| to undress
| |
| |-
| |
| |align=center| '''tasta'''
| |
| |align=center| to tangle
| |
| |align=center| '''tastua'''
| |
| |align=center| to untangle
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| Note that in any other form but the '''geladi''', the '''u''' changes to a '''w'''. For example ;-
| |
| | |
| '''fiŋkwori''' = he undressed
| |
| | |
| ==Index==
| |
| | |
| {{Béu Index}}
| |
