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== ..... Pronouns ==
{{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}}


In this section we discuss pronouns and also introduce the S, A and O arguments.


'''béu''' is what is called an ergative language. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative. So let us explain what ergative means. Well in English we have 2 forms of the first person singular pronoun ... namely "I" and "me". Also we have 2 forms of the third person singular male pronoun ... namely "he" and "him". These two forms help determine who does what to whom. For example "I hit him" and "He hit me" have obviously different meanings (in English there is a fixed word order, which also helps. In '''béu''' the word order is free).
db-g7
 
'''timpa''' = to hit  ... '''timpa''' is a verb that takes two nouns (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb).
 
'''pás ò timpari''' = I hit him
'''pà ós timpori''' = He hit me  ... OK in this case the protagonist marking in the verb also helps to make things disambiguous. But this will not always help, for example when both protagonists are third person and of the same number.
 
So far so good. And we see that English and '''béu''' behave in the same way so far. But what happens when we take a verb that takes only one noun (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb). For example '''doika''' = "to walk". In English we have "he walked". However in '''béu''' we don't have '''*ós doikori''' but '''ò doikori''' (equivalent to saying "*him walked" in English). So this in a nutshell is what an ergative language is.
 
It is the convention to call the doer in a intransitive clause the S argument. For example '''ò<sub>S</sub> fomporta''' = She has tripped
 
It is the convention to call the "doer" in a transitive clause the A argument and the "done to" the O argument For example '''ós<sub>A</sub> timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = He hit Jane
 
The S was historically from the word "Subject" and the O historically from the word "Object", but it is best just to forget about that. In fact when I use the word "subject" I am talking about either the S argument or the A argument.
 
If you like you can say ;-
 
In English "him" is the "done to"(O argument) : "he" is the "doer"(S argument)  and the "doer to"(A argument).
 
In '''béu''' '''ò''' is the "done to"(O argument) and the "doer"(S argument) : '''ós''' is the "doer to"(A argument).
 
Below the form of the '''béu''' pronouns is the given for when the pronoun is the A argument.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pás'''
  |align=center| we  (includes "you")
  |align=center| '''yúas'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we (doesn't include "you")
  |align=center| '''wías'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gís'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jés'''
  |-
  |align=center| he, she
  |align=center| '''ós'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ús'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
    |}
 
 
[[Image:TW_68.png]]
 
In fact these pronouns are usually dropped when possible, so it might be better to translate the above as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
 
Below the form of the '''béu''' pronouns is the given for when the pronoun is the S or O argument. When they are used as S arguments it might be better to translate these pronouns  as "I myself", "you yourself" etc. etc.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''yùa'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}
 
The above table is for S and O arguments, it fact we have another pronoun but this one only occurs as an O argument. When a action is performed by somebody on themselves we use '''tí''' to represent the O argument.
 
Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in '''béu''' we do not say '''*pás pà timpari''', but '''pás tí timpari'''.
 
'''tí''' does not have to immediately<sup>*</sup> follow the ergative pronoun but it usually does.
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in '''béu''' only one.
 
Pronouns can just be set down beside each other if they both make up the same argument in a clause. Unlike normal nouns which must have '''é''' ( "and" ) between them and any other component.
 
<sup>*</sup>It is a rule that '''tí''' must follow the A argument.
 
The possessive form of these pronouns
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| my
  |align=center| '''pàn'''
  |align=center| our
  |align=center| '''yùan'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| our
  |align=center| '''wìan'''
  |-
  |align=center| your
  |align=center| '''gìn'''
  |align=center| your (plural)
  |align=center| '''jèn'''
  |-
  |align=center| his, her
  |align=center| '''òn'''
  |align=center| their
  |align=center| '''ùn'''
  |-
  |align=center| its
  |align=center| '''ʃìn'''
  |align=center| their
  |align=center| '''ʃìn'''
    |}
 
And we also have '''tín''' which is used if the possessor is the same as the subject of the clause.
 
== ..... Building up a noun phrase (NP)==
 
Now we talk about the '''béu''' noun phrase (called a '''cwidauza''' in '''béu'''). This can be described as ;-
 
Quantifier<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> (Adjective<sub>3</sub> x n) Genitive<sub>4</sub> Determiner<sub>5</sub> Relative-clause<sub>6</sub>
 
1) The Quantifier/Specifier is either a number or a word such as "all", "many", "a few" etc.
 
2) The head is usually a noun but can also be an adjective. When you come across an adjective as head of a noun phrase, its meaning is "the person/thing that is "adjective" ".
 
3) An adjective ... not much to say about this one, you can have as many as you like, the same as English.
 
4) A noun or pronoun that qualifies another noun (commonly called the Genitive in the Western linguistic tradition). Formed by suffixing '''-n''' to a normal noun makes it into a genitive.
 
5) Either '''dí''' "this", or '''dè''' "that".
 
6) This is a clause, beginning with '''ʔà''' that qualifies the head of the noun phrase.  '''ʔà''' can be considered as a nominalizer, that is it is a particle that changes the following clause into a noun.
     
----------------
 
An interesting point is that in the absence of a "head", any of the other elements can act as the head.
 
== ..... The case system==
 
These are what in LINGUISTIC JARGON are called "cases". The classical languages, Greek and Latin had 5 or 6 of these. Modern-day Finnish has about 15 (it depends on how you count them, 1 or 2 are slowly fading away). Present day English still has a relic of a once more extensive case system : most pronouns have two forms. For example ;- the third-person:singular:male pronoun is "he" if it represents "the doer", but "him" if it represents "the done to".
 
The 12 '''béu''' case markers are called '''pilana'''
 
The word '''pilana''' is built up from ;-
 
'''pila''' = to place, to position
 
'''pilana''' <= ('''pil<del>a</del>''' + '''ana'''), in LINGUISTIC JARGON it is called a "present participle".  It is an adjective which means "putting (something) in position".
 
As '''béu''' adjectives freely convert to nouns<sup>*</sup>, it also means "that which puts (something) in position" or "the positioner".
 
Actually only a few of them live up to this name ... nevertheless the whole set of 12 are called '''pilana''' in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_170.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_171.png]]
 
The '''pilana''' are suffixed to nouns and specify the roll these nouns play within a clause or within a NP.
 
The '''pilana''' are abbreviated to a single consonant in the '''béu''' writing system. That is, in the '''béu''' writing system, the final vowel of all '''pilana'''.
 
The '''pilana''' are partly an aid to quicker writing. However they also demarcate a set of 12 affixes and make quite a neat system. 
 
You could call these 12 plus the unmarked noun a case system of 13 cases. Well you could if you wanted to (up to you).
 
Note that '''-lya''' and '''-lfe''' are represented by a special amalgamated symbols which do not occur elsewhere.
 
Notice that by a addition of '''pilana''', you might expect to get the forms '''alye''' and '''alfi'''. As you can see this is not the case. Perhaps the amalgamated form has the final vowel changed under the pull of the initial vowel, '''a'''.
 
<sup>*</sup> You can tell if '''pilana''' is being an adjective or a noun by the environment that you find it in.
 
 
-----
 
Now one quirk of '''béu''' (something that I haven't heard of happening in any natural language), is that the '''pilana''' is sometimes realised as an affix to the head of the NP, but sometimes as a preposition in front of the entire NP. This behaviour can be accounted for with  thing with two rules.
 
1) The '''pilana''' attaches to the head and only to the head of the NP.
 
2) The NP is not allowed to be broken up by a '''pilana'''. The whole thing must be contiguous. So if a NP has elements after the head the case must be realised as a preposition and be placed in front of the entire noun phrase.
 
So if we have a NP with elements to the right of the head, then the '''pilana''' must become a preposition. The prepositional forms of the '''pilana''' are given on the above chart to the right. These free-standing particles are also written just using the symbols given on the above chart to the left. That is in writing they are shorn of their vowels as their affixed counter-parts are.
 
The letters m, b, k, g and d are free to be used as abbreviations. Perhaps m <= '''mò''', two particles for joining clauses etc. etc.
 
<sup>*</sup>Another case when the '''pilana''' must be expressed as a prepositions is when the noun ends in a constant. This happens very, very rarely but it is possible. For example '''toilwan''' is an adjective meaning "bookish". And in '''béu''' as adjectives can also act as nouns in certain positions, '''toilwan''' would also be a noun meaning "the bookworm". Another example is '''ʔokos''' which means "vowel".
 
==='''-pi''' or '''pì'''===
 
'''meu (rà)''' "basket"'''pi'''
 
While the original meaning was about space, this '''pilana''' is very often found referring to time.
 
I read the book hour'''pi''' => I read the book in an hour
 
I gets dark '''pi''' ten minutes => It get dark in ten minutes
 
She qualified as a doctor '''pi''' five years
 
One can get from Glasgow to London day'''pi'''
 
I'm coming to Sweden '''pi''' next month
 
-------------------
 
'''meu (rà)''' top'''la''' basket'''n''' = The cat is on top of the house
 
'''meu (rà)''' interior basket'''n''' = the cat is in the basket
 
----------------------------
 
==='''-la''' or '''lá'''===
 
mat (rà) floor'''la''' => the mat is on the floor ... notice "the mat"
 
'''twor''' mat floor'''la''' => there is a mat on the floor ... notice "a mat". Also the verb '''two''' is usually sentence initial, at least when introducing something new.
 
'''meu''' (rà) top'''la  nambon''' => The cat is on top of the house
 
Notice that "top'''la nambon'''" is allowed, I should mention this somewhere.
 
 
'''twor ble pàn''' = I have (some) money
 
'''ble twor pàn''' = I have the money
 
'''tworka ble pàn'''  =  I don't have any money .... Note that it is also possible to say '''twor yà ble pàn''', but the first method is definitely preferred.
 
'''ble tworka pàn'''  =  I don't have the money
 
---------------
 
bird '''(rà)''' top '''nambon''' = The bird is above the house
 
Notice that in the above example "top" is considered a specifier ... "top '''nambo'''" forms a tight compound.
 
The eight specifiers of location are above, below, right, left, this side (with respect to the speaker, of course), the far side
 
==='''-ye''' or '''yè'''===
 
'''kyis toili oye''' = give the book to her
 
This is the '''pilana''' used for marking the receiver of a gift, or the receiver of some knowledge.
 
However the basic usage of the word is directional.
 
'''*namboye''' => '''nambye''' = "to the house"
 
distance'''ye nambon''' = "as far as the house"
 
"limit"'''ye nambon''' = "up to the house" ... this usage is not for approaching humans however ... for that you must use "face".i.e. "face"'''ye báun''' = right up to the man
 
 
-----------------------
 
'''yèu''' = to arrive  ... '''yài''' a SVC meaning "to start" ... '''fái''' a SVC meaning "to stop" ???
 
-----------------
 
==='''-fi''' or '''fí'''===
 
'''nambofi''' = "from the house"
 
'''fí "direction" nà nambo''' = "away from the house" i.e.you don't know if this is his origin but he is coming from the direction that the house is in.
 
'''fí "limit/border" nà nambo''' = all the way from the house
 
'''fí "top" nà nambo''' = from the top of the house ... and so on for "bottom", "front", etc. etc.
 
he changed frog.'''fi'''  '''ye''' prince handsome = he changed from a frog to a handsome prince
 
-----------------------
'''fía''' = to leave, to depart ... '''fái''' a SVC meaning "to finish"  .... then '''bai''' cound mean continue and '''-ana''' would be the present tense ???
 
-----------------
 
==='''-lya''' or '''alya'''===
 
Sometimes called the "Allative case" but we don't have to worry about that rubbish here. Can be said to translate to English as "onto".
 
'''xxx yyy zzz''' = put the cushions on the sofa
 
-----------------------
 
==='''-lfe''' or '''alfe'''===
 
The ablative
 
==='''-s''' or '''sá'''===
 
that Stefen turned up drunk at the interview sank his chance of getting that job
 
'''sá tá ........ '''
 
==='''-ʔe''' or '''ʔé'''===
 
The instrumental is used for nouns that represent the instrument ("with"), the means ("by") or the agent ("by").
 
John writes with a pen
 
banu = to learn
 
banuʔe = by learning
 
 
 
book was written '''paʔe''' = The book was written by me
 
'''andaʔe''' = manually
 
I work as a translator ??? ... I work '''sàu''' translator ??
 
'''ʔé ta ... '''
 
==='''-ho''' or '''hò''' ===
 
The commitive
 
"in the company of", often used with the personal pronouns ;-
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| with me
  |align=center| '''paho'''
  |align=center| with us
  |align=center| '''yuaho'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| with us
  |align=center| '''wiaho'''
  |-
  |align=center| with you
  |align=center| '''giho'''
  |align=center| with you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jeho'''
  |-
  |align=center| with him, with her
  |align=center| '''oho'''
  |align=center| with them
  |align=center| '''uho'''
  |-
  |align=center| with it
  |align=center| '''ʃiho'''
  |align=center| with them
  |align=center| '''ʃiho'''
    |}
 
-----------------------
'''tùa''' = to use, to wear ... '''tàu''' a SVC meaning ??
 
==='''-ji''' or '''jí'''===
 
The benefactive. Sometimes used with '''gomia'''
 
banu = to learn, banuji = in order to learn
 
==='''-wo''' or '''wó'''===
 
Used for marking the "theme" as in such sentences as the one below.
 
'''gala caturi jonowo''' => The women were talking about John
 
'''jonowo''' ... = as for John ....
 
==='''-n''' or '''nà'''===
 
The locative or the possessive. Basically if the noun is human, it is the possessive : if the noun is non-human, it is locative.
 
'''nambo jonon (rà) hauʔe''' = John's house is beautiful
 
'''jono (rà) nambon''' = John is at home
 
Some example;-
 
'''fanfa''' = horse
 
'''sonda''' = son
 
'''blico''' = king
 
'''fanfa sondan''' = the horse of the son
 
'''sonda blicon''' = the son of the king
 
However the suffixed form can only be used if the genitive is a single word. Otherwise the particle '''na''' must be placed in front of the words that qualify. For example ;-
 
We can't say '''*fanfa sondan blicon''' however. The '''-n''' on '''sonda''' is splitting the NP '''sonda blico'''.
 
So we must say '''fanfa nà sonda blicon'''
 
Some more examples ...
 
'''fanfa nà sonda jini blicon''' = "the horse of the king's clever son'''
 
'''fanfa nà sonda nà blico somua''' = "the horse of the fat king's son"
 
== ..... Adjectives and how they pervade other parts of speech==
 
Earlier on in this chapter we discussed parts of speech. In béu, sometimes, an unmodified word can belong to 2 or 3 different parts of speech at once.
 
Also earlier on I introduced the '''gomua''' (G) or the infinitive, as a part of speech. This is the "base form" of the verb and it resembles a noun in many respects. It is being treated as a seperate part of speech ... just for convenience really. I do not want to get into an argument about linguistic theories etc. etc. This is just to make things easy to discuss.
 
Let us start of with a single-syllable adjective. Let us see what forms a single-syllable adjective can take and what "parts of speech" these forms can belong to. Consider the word '''gèu''' "green" ;-
 
 
[[Image:TW_158.png]]
 
Along the top of the above chart you can see N, A, V and G (noun, adjective, verb and '''gomua''').
 
The form under these 4 headings, shows the form '''gèu''' takes when it is one of these 4 parts of speech. '''gèu''' is fundamentally an adjective (that is what the thicker border around the "A" means).
 
You can see that we have two nouns forms in the above chart. One has its original form, I call this one "the substansive noun" (meaning "the green one"). The other changes its form by taking the affix '''-n'''. I call this one "the qualitative noun" (meaning "greenness").
 
We can see that we can derive a verb from '''gèu'''. By affixing '''-s''' we get an transitive verb meaning "to make green". You can see that the '''V'''-forms and the '''G'''-forms are the same.
 
Actually the '''V'''-form is not '''gèus'''. The '''V'''-form is actually a myriad of forms. But they are all built up from the '''gèus''' foundations. As an example let us build up one of the myriad of forms that the '''V'''-form can take. First we add a vowel, either '''a''', '''i''', '''o''', '''u''', '''e''', '''au''' or '''ai''', that represents the subject ... then we add, either '''r''', '''n''' or '''s''' (depending on if we want the indicative mood, the subjunctive nood or the imperative) ... then we add a vowel (or consonant + vowel) as a tense/aspect marker, either ???  ... then we possibly add an evidential marker, either '''n''', '''s''' or '''a'''. So we could get  '''geus''' + '''i''' + '''r''' + '''i'''  +'''a''' => '''geuʃiria''' = "you became green, I saw it" ... one of the many forms considered as a '''V'''-form.
 
OK. We have seen how a single-syllable adjective works. Now for a 2-syllable adjective. Consider the word '''naike''' "sharp" ;-
 
 
[[Image:TW_159.png]]
 
We can see that in this case it is possible to have 3 parts of speech from only one form. However in this case the "finite" verb (V) is built up directly from '''naike''' and not from the '''G'''-form. So, for example, we have '''naikiria''' = "you sharpened (it), I saw you do it". Rather than '''*naikeʃiria'''.
 
==..... 64 Adjectives==
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| good
  |align=center| '''bòi<sup>*</sup>'''
  |align=center| bad
  |align=center| '''kéu'''
  |-
  |align=center| long
  |align=center| '''làu'''
  |align=center| short
  |align=center| '''lái'''
  |-
  |align=center| high, tall
  |align=center| '''hài'''
  |align=center| low, short
  |align=center| '''ʔáu'''
  |-
  |align=center| right, positive
  |align=center| '''lugu'''
  |align=center| left, negative
  |align=center| '''liʒi'''
  |-
  |align=center| white
  |align=center| '''ái'''
  |align=center| black
  |align=center| '''àu'''
  |-
  |align=center| young
  |align=center| '''sài'''
  |align=center| old (of a living thing)
  |align=center|  '''gáu'''
  |-
  |align=center| clever, smart
  |align=center| '''jini'''
  |align=center| stupid, thick
  |align=center| '''tumu'''
  |-
  |align=center| near
  |align=center| '''nìa'''
  |align=center| far
  |align=center| '''múa'''
  |-
  |align=center| new
  |align=center| '''yaipe'''
  |align=center| old, former, previous
  |align=center|  '''waufo'''
  |-
  |align=center| big
  |align=center| '''jutu'''
  |align=center| small
  |align=center| '''tiji'''
  |-
  |align=center| hot
  |align=center| '''fema'''
  |align=center| cold
  |align=center| '''pona'''
  |-
  |align=center| open
  |align=center| '''nava'''
  |align=center| close
  |align=center| '''mapa'''
  |-
  |align=center| simple, easy
  |align=center| '''baga'''
  |align=center| complex, difficult, hard
  |align=center| '''kaza'''
  |-
  |align=center| sharp
  |align=center| '''naike'''
  |align=center| blunt
  |align=center| '''maubo'''
  |-
  |align=center| wet
  |align=center| '''nuco'''
  |align=center| dry
  |align=center| '''mide'''
  |-
  |align=center| empty
  |align=center| '''fene'''
  |align=center| full
  |align=center| '''pomo'''
  |-
  |align=center| fast
  |align=center| '''saco'''
  |align=center| slow
  |align=center| '''gade'''
  |-
  |align=center| strong
  |align=center| '''yubu'''
  |align=center| weak
  |align=center| '''wiki'''
  |-
  |align=center| heavy
  |align=center| '''wobua'''
  |align=center| light
  |align=center| '''yekia'''
  |-
  |align=center| beautiful
  |align=center| '''hauʔe'''
  |align=center| ugly
  |align=center| '''ʔaiho'''
  |-
  |align=center| contiguous, touching
  |align=center| '''yotia'''
  |align=center| apart, separate
  |align=center| '''wejua'''
  |-
  |align=center| fat
  |align=center| '''somua'''
  |align=center| thin, skinny
  |align=center| '''genia'''
  |-
  |align=center| bright
  |align=center| '''selia'''
  |align=center| dull, dim
  |align=center| '''golua'''
  |-
  |align=center| thin
  |align=center| '''pilia'''
  |align=center| thick
  |align=center| '''fulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| east, dawn, sunrise
  |align=center| '''cúa'''
  |align=center| west, dusk, sundown
  |align=center| '''dìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| tight
  |align=center| '''taitu'''
  |align=center| slack, loose
  |align=center|  '''jauji'''
  |-
  |align=center| neat
  |align=center| '''ilia'''
  |align=center| untidy
  |align=center| '''ulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| soft
  |align=center| '''fuje'''
  |align=center| hard
  |align=center| '''pito'''
  |-
  |align=center| wide/broad
  |align=center| '''juga'''
  |align=center| narrow
  |align=center| '''tisa'''
  |-
  |align=center| rough
  |align=center| '''gaʔu'''
  |align=center| smooth
  |align=center| '''sahi'''
  |-
  |align=center| deep
  |align=center| '''gubu'''
  |align=center| shallow
  |align=center| '''siki'''
  |-
  |align=center| right
  |align=center| '''sèu'''
  |align=center| wrong
  |align=center| '''gói'''
  |}
 
In the above list, it can be seen that each pair of adjectives have pretty much the exact opposite meaning. However in '''béu''' there is ALSO a relationship between the sounds that make up these words. 
 
In fact every element of a word is a mirror image (about the L-A axis in the chart below) of the corresponding element in the word with the opposite meaning.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔ''' 
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''m'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''y'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''j'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''au'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''f'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''o'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''b'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''oi'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''g'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''i'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''d'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ia'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|  '''high tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''l'''
  |align=center| ===========================
  |align=center| '''a'''
  |align=center| ============================
  |align=left|  '''neutral'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''c'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ua'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|'''low tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''u'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''k'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''eu'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''p'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''e'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''t'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''ai'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''w'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''n'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''h'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |}
 
<sup>*</sup> Note that the adverb version of this word is slightly irregular. Instead of '''boiwe''' it is '''bowe'''. People often shout this when impressed with some athletic feat or sentiment voiced ... '''bowe bowe''' => well done => bravo bravo
 
Also instead of '''keuwe''' we have '''kewe'''. People often shout '''kewe kewe kewe''' if they are unimpressed with some athletic feat or disagree with a sentiment expressed. Equivalent to "Booo boo".
 
== ..... The parts of speech of béu==
 
"Parts of speech" is linguistic jargon, which is referring to the different "classes" of words a language might have. For example "nouns", "verbs", etc. etc.
 
In fact nouns (N), verbs (V) and adjectives (A) are the big three, and after some debate over the last 30 years, it has been agreed that every language has these three word classes.
 
In '''béu''' a noun is called '''cwidau''' ('''cwì''' meaning a physical object), a verb is called '''jaudau''' ('''jàu''' meaning "to move"), and an adjective is called '''saidau''' ('''sái''' meaning "a colour").
 
There are other classes of words in '''béu''' as there are in other languages. '''béu''' has adverbs ('''wedau''') but these don't really come into their own, being more a form an adjective takes in certain situations. Also a lot of words that are called adverbs in English are called particles ('''feŋgia''') (F) in '''béu'''. Particles are a type of hold-all category for a word that doesn't fit into any of the other classes. Under the term "particle" many subclasses can be defined, and in fact some subclasses have a class membership of one. If you come across a word that can not easily be equated with any of the major word classes ... well then you probably have a '''feŋgi'''.
 
It is necessary to talk about another part of speech which i will refer to by the '''béu''' term '''gomia'''<sup>*</sup> (G). It is a form of the verb which is called the "infinitive" in the Western linguistic tradition.
 
<sup>*</sup> '''goma''' means "tail" and '''gomia''' means "tail-less". The reason for this is that a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs commonly do, has person, number, tense, aspect and evidentiality expressed on the verb as series of suffixes, hence the "tail". These items are not expressed on the '''gomia'''.
 
In contradistinction to '''gomia''' we have '''gomua''' ('''jaudau gomua''' to give the concept its full title) which is a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs typically do.
 
For example '''solbarin''' (I drank, so they say) is a '''gomua'''.
 
'''solbarin''' is built up from the '''gomia''' "'''solbe'''" ...  first you delete the final vowel => then you add "'''a'''" meaning first person singular subject => then you add "'''r'''" meaning that the mood is indicative (as opposed to imperative or subjunctive) => then you add "'''i'''" meaning simple past tense => and finally you add "'''n'''" which is an evidential, meaning that the utterance is based on what other people have said.
 
'''solbarin''' is '''gomua pomo''' or "a full tail verb".
 
The three evidential markers are all optional, so they can quite easily be dropped. '''solbari''' (I drank) is what is called '''gomua yàu''' or "a long tail verb".
 
'''solbis''' (you lot drink) and '''solbon''' (let him drink) are '''gomua wái''' or "a short tail verbs" ... the first is an example of the imperative and the second is an example of the subjunctive (more linguistic jargon ... sorry).
 
-----------------
 
'''solbai''' is called an part verb ???
 
== ..... Some linguistic terms in béu==
 
By the way, while we are at it (defining linguistic terms)
 
'''nandau''' = word
 
'''semo''' = a clause ... from the verb "to say" '''sema'''
 
'''semoza''' = a sentence
 
'''jaudauza''' = a verb phrase or verb complex (commonly called a "predicate" by linguists). This is the verb together with the five modals.
 
'''feŋgi''' = a particle ... given above
 
'''plofa''' = a participle (P) ... there are 3 participles in béu
 
'''ʔasemo''' = a relative clause
 
'''kalope''' = a complement clause. There are three types of these ... '''kalope jù''', '''kalope tà''' and '''kalope tavoi'''
 
A '''kalope jù''' is a '''gomiaza''' if it is more than one word long, if only one word long it is simply a '''gomia'''
 
A '''gomiaza'''  can comprise of  subject ... gomia ... object ... adverb ... other peripheral terms
 
The term '''gomuaza''' is not used. You would use the word '''semo''' meaning clause.
 
'''taifi''' (that which is to be tied ??? check participles) = copular subject
 
'''taifo''' = copular complement
 
'''taifau''' = to tie
 
'''taifana''' = a copula
 
== ..... Question==
 
'''béu''' has a "toolbox" that allows us to ask questions. The tools in that tool box are '''ʔái''', '''bái''', '''kái''', '''dái''', '''mái''', '''nái''' and '''cái''' ... the seven words used for asking questions.
 
=== ..... The '''ʔainandaua''' or the Question Words ===
 
The table below shows some of the '''béu''' '''ʔainandaua'''
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| what, who
  |align=center| '''ʔái'''
  |-
  |align=center| where
  |align=center| '''bái'''
  |-
  |align=center| when
  |align=center| '''kái'''
  |-
  |align=center| how
  |align=center|  '''dái'''
  |-
  |align=center| how much
  |align=center| '''mái'''
  |}
 
"what/who" asks the interlocutor to give an argument for the clause given.
 
"where" asks the interlocutor to give a place for the clause given.
 
"when" asks the interlocutor to give a time for the clause given.
 
"how"  asks the interlocutor to give an adverb for the clause given.
 
'''mái''' is slightly different ...
 
if placed in front of a noun, it asks the interlocutor to give a number if the noun is countable, if not countable it is asking for an amount.
 
if placed in front of an adjective, it asks the interlocutor to give the degree/level of the adjective (an amount ?? should we use the same grades for nouns and adjectives ??).
 
----------------
 
These words have to be fronted (as in English). That is they must come sentence initial.
 
'''ʔái''' takes '''pilana''', just as a normal noun does. Here are some examples ...
 
Statement ... '''báus glaye kyori alha''' = the man gave flowers to the woman
 
Question 1) '''ʔáis glaye kyori alha''' = who gave flowers to the woman
 
Question 2) '''ʔaiye báus kyori alhai''' = to whom did the man gave flowers
 
Question 3) '''ʔái báus glaye kyori''' = what did the man give to the woman
 
Notice that in 1, '''ʔáis''' is interpreted as "who" because it is overwhelmingly the case that a person would be giving flowers to somebody.
 
Similarly for 2, and in 3, '''ʔái''' is interpreted as "what" because it is overwhelmingly the case that a person would be giving an nonhuman object to somebody else.
 
By the way "why" is translated as '''ʔaiji''' "for what".
 
------------
 
In English it is not wrong to say "what man gave the woman flowers" rather than "which man gave the woman flowers".
 
In '''béu''' "what" can never be conjoined with a noun as is possible in English.
 
In English it is not TOTALLY wrong to say "which gave the woman flowers" rather than "which man gave the woman flowers".
 
In '''béu''' "which" must always be conjoined with a suitable noun or pronoun.
 
The word for "which" is '''nái''' and it always comes after the noun that it is conjoined with. No fronting is required for '''nái'''.
 
For example ....
 
Question 4) '''báus nái glaye kyori alha'''= which man gave flowers to the woman
 
Question 5) '''báus yè glà nái kyori alha'''= to which woman did the man gave flowers
 
Question 6) '''báus glaye kyori alha nái'''= which flowers did the man give to the woman
 
Notice that in 5, '''nái''' and the word that it is conjoined with, can not be seperated by the '''pilana''' '''ye'''.
 
"which one" would be translated as '''ʃì nái''' if we are referring to a non-A argument and non-human.
 
"which ones" would be translated as '''nò ʃì nái''' if we are referring to a non-A argument and non-human.
 
"which one" would be translated as '''ò nái''' if we are referring to a non-A argument but human.
 
"which ones" would be translated as '''ù nái''' if we are referring to a non-A argument but human.
 
Of course to refer to an A argument, we simple add -'''s''' to the pronoun.
 
=== ..... How to ask a yes/no question ===
 
To turn a normal statement into a polar question (i.e. a question that requires a YES/NO answer), we stick the particle '''ʔái''' on the end of the sentence.
 
'''ʔái''' is neutral as to the response you are expecting. If you are expecting a positive reply, you would use the particle '''ʔaiwa''' instead.
 
To answer a positive question, YES or NO ( '''ʔaiwa àu aiya''' ) is sufficient.
 
To answer a negative question positively, YES ( '''ʔaiwa''' ) is enough.
 
To answer a negative question negatively, you must give an entire clause.
 
For example ;-
 
Statement 1) '''glà (rà) hauʔe''' = The woman is beautiful. 
 
Question 1) '''glà hauʔe ʔái''' = Is the woman beautiful ?  .......... If she is beautiful, answer '''ʔaiwa''', if she isn't answer '''aiya'''.
 
Statement 2) '''glà (ká) hauʔe''' = The woman isn't beautiful.
 
Question 2) '''glà ká hauʔe ʔái''' = Isn't the woman beautiful ? ........ If she isn't beautiful, answer '''ʔaiwa''', if she is answer '''ò rà hauʔe'''. (notice that the copula must be used in this case)
 
( in a later section we will see that it is not always necessary to use '''ʔái'''. When you have a clause with a modal, you simply change the word order to ask a polar question. ) ???
 
Also it is possible to focus on a particular element when asking a YES/NO question in '''béu'''. This is done by putting the particle '''cái''' after the element that you want to focus on. For example ...
 
Statement 1) '''báus glaye timpi alhai''' = the man gave flowers to the woman
 
Straight question 2) '''báus glaye timpi alha ʔái''' = did the man gave flowers to the woman ?
 
Focused question 3) '''báus glaye cái timpi alha''' = Is it the woman that the man gave flowers to  ?
 
-------------
 
Actually there is a way to focused elements in a statement which mirrors the way to focus elements in a question. We use either '''cía''' or '''cìa''' for this.
 
Focused statement  4) '''báus glaye cía timpi alhai''' = It is the woman to whom the man gave the flowers.
 
The particle has a high tone if following a neutral tone word or a low tone word. If it focuses a high tone word it has a low tone i.e. '''cìa'''.
 
=== ..... The other '''ʔainandaua''' ===
 
As well as the five question words given above, '''béu''' also has a question verb ('''ʔail'''-) meaning "to do what". For example ...
 
'''ʔailiri''' = "what will you do"
 
'''ʔailora jonos jene''' = "what is John doing to Jane"
 
It doesn't have to be fronted but it usually is.
 
=== ..... The relativizers ===
 
The table below shows the '''béu''' relativizers.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| that, who, which
  |align=center| '''ʔài'''
  |-
  |align=center| where
  |align=center| '''bài'''
  |-
  |align=center| when
  |align=center| '''kài'''
  |-
  |align=center| as, in the manner that
  |align=center|  '''dài'''
  |-
  |align=center| as
  |align=center| '''mài'''
  |}
 
"that,who,which" gives the interlocutor the argument which is not stated in the clause following "that,who,which".
 
"where" gives the interlocutor the place which is not stated in the clause following "where".
 
"when" gives the interlocutor the time which is not stated in the clause following "when".
 
"how"  gives the interlocutor the manner which is not stated in the clause following "how".
 
'''mài''' is slightly different ...
 
if placed after a noun, it gives the interlocutor the amount or number for that noun by means of the NP following '''mài'''.
 
'''twor ble? pàn mài (twor) gìn''' = I have as much money as you.
 
if placed after an adjective, it gives the interlocutor to the degree/level of that adjective by means of the NP following '''mài'''.
 
'''wáu òn (rà) nela mài wáu pàn''' = His eyes are as blue as my eyes.
 
I THINK THAT THIS IS OK. IS IT ??
 
One way in which the first three ('''ʔài''', '''bài''' and '''kài''')  can be analysed, is to say that they are nominalizers, they turn a clause into a noun. Then you could say that a relative clause is simply a nominal that stands in apposition to the noun which it qualifies.
 
Now all these words found in the question toolbox are very common. Because of this, they have a shorthand way of being written. These are given below ...
 
 
[[Image:TW_167.png]]
 
 
[[Image:TW_168.png]]
 
== ..... Simple arithmetic==
 
'''noiga''' = arithmetic
 
[[Image:TW_69.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_70.png]]
 
Above right you can see the numbers 1 -> 11 displayed. Notice that the forms of 1, 3, 6, 7 and 9 have been modified slightly before the "number bar" has been added.
 
In the bottom right you can see 7 interesting symbols. These are used to extend the range of the '''béu''' number system (remember the basic system only covers 1-> 1727). Their meanings are given in the table below.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| elephant
  |align=center| '''huŋgu'''
  |-
  |align=center| rhino
  |align=center|  '''nàin'''
  |-
  |align=center| water buffalo
  |align=center| '''wúa'''
  |-
  |align=center| circle
  |align=center| '''omba'''
  |-
  |align=center| hare
  |align=center| '''yanfa'''
  |-
  |align=center| beetle
  |align=center| '''mulu'''
  |-
  |align=center| bacterium, bug
  |align=center| '''ʔiwetu'''
  |}
 
To give you an idea of how they are used, I have given you a very big number below.
 
[[Image:TW_77.png]]
 
Which is  => 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559,62 ... E represents eleven and T represents ten ... remember the number is in base 12.
 
O.K. this number has a ridiculous dynamic range. But this is for demonstration purposes only: if you can handle this number you can handle any number.
 
This monster would be pronounced '''aja huŋgu ufaila nàin ezaitauba wúa idauja omba idaizaupa yanfa elaibau mulu idaidauka ʔiwetu elaifau dó'''
 
Now the 7 "placeholders" are not really thought of as real numbers, they are markers only. Used in the same way that we would say "point"/"decimal" when reeling off a number.
 
When first introduced to this system, many people think that the '''béu''' culture must be untenable, however strangely enough the '''béu''' culture has lasted many thousands of year, despite the obvious confusion that must arise when they attempt to count elephants.
 
One further point of note ...
 
If you wanted to express a number represented by digits 2->4 from the LHS of the monster, you would say '''aufaidaula nàin''' .... the same way as we have in the Western European tradition.
However if you wanted to express a number represented digits 6 ->8 from the RHS of the monster, you would say '''yanfa elaibau'''  .... not the way we do it.  This is like saying "milli 630" instead of "630 micro".
 
To make a number negative the "number bar" is placed on the left. See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_71.png]]
 
Also a number can be made imaginary by adding a further stroke that touches the "number bar". See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_73.png]]
 
As you can see above, there is no special sign for the "addition operation". The numbers are simply written one beneath the other. Similarly with subtraction but one number would be negative this time.
 
There is a special sign to indicate multiplication ('''+'''), and there is an equals sign ('''-''').
 
Division is the same as multiplication except that one of the numbers is in "fractional form".
 
There is an alternative multiplication/division notation : instead of using the '''+''' sign, the two quantities can instead be written side by side (see the example above).
 
-6 is pronounced '''ela liʒi''' ... '''liʒi''' means left or "negative
 
By the way '''lugu''' means right (as in right-hand-side) or positive.
 
4i is pronounced '''uga haspia''' ... and what does '''haspia''' mean, well it is the name of the little squiggle that touches the number bar, for one thing.
 
-4i is pronounced '''uga haspia liʒi'''
 
-1/10 is pronounced '''diapa liʒi'''
 
i/4 is pronounced '''duga haspia'''
 
And so ends chapter 2 ...
 
== ..... Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

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