Béu : Chapter 2: Difference between revisions

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== ..... The parts of speech of béu==
{{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}}


"Parts of speech" is linguistic jargon, which is referring to the different "classes" of words a language might have. For example "nouns", "verbs", etc. etc.


In fact nouns (N), verbs (V) and adjectives (A) are the big three, and after some debate over the last 30 years, it has been agreed that every language has these three word classes.
db-g7
 
In '''béu''' a noun is called '''cwidau''' ('''cwì''' meaning a physical object), a verb is called '''jaudau''' ('''jàu''' meaning "to move"), and an adjective is called '''saidau''' ('''sái''' meaning "a colour").
 
There are other classes of words in '''béu''' as there are in other languages. '''béu''' has adverbs ('''wedau''') but these don't really come into their own, being more a form an adjective takes in certain situations. Also a lot of words that are called adverbs in English are called particles ('''feŋgia''') (F) in '''béu'''. Particles are a type of hold-all category for a word that doesn't fit into any of the other classes. Under the term "particle" many subclasses can be defined, and in fact some subclasses have a class membership of one. If you come across a word that can not easily be equated with any of the major word classes ... well then you probably have a '''feŋgi'''.
 
It is necessary to talk about another part of speech which i will refer to by the '''béu''' term '''gomia'''<sup>*</sup> (G). It is a form of the verb which is called the "infinitive" in the Western linguistic tradition.
 
<sup>*</sup> '''goma''' means "tail" and '''gomia''' means "tail-less". The reason for this is that a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs commonly do, has person, number, tense, aspect and evidentiality expressed on the verb as series of suffixes, hence the "tail". These items are not expressed on the '''gomia'''.
 
In contradistinction to '''gomia''' we have '''gomua''' ('''jaudau gomua''' to give the concept its full title) which is a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs typically do.
 
For example '''solbarin''' (I drank, so they say) is a '''gomua'''.
 
'''solbarin''' is built up from the '''gomia''' "'''solbe'''" ...  first you delete the final vowel => then you add "'''a'''" meaning first person singular subject => then you add "'''r'''" meaning that the mood is indicative (as opposed to imperative or subjunctive) => then you add "'''i'''" meaning simple past tense => and finally you add "'''n'''" which is an evidential, meaning that the utterance is based on what other people have said.
 
'''solbarin''' is '''gomua pomo''' or "a full tail verb".
 
The three evidential markers are all optional, so they can quite easily be dropped. '''solbari''' (I drank) is what is called '''gomua yàu''' or "a long tail verb".
 
'''solbis''' (you lot drink) and '''solbon''' (let him drink) are '''gomua wái''' or "a short tail verbs" ... the first is an example of the imperative and the second is an example of the subjunctive (more linguistic jargon ... sorry).
 
-----------------
 
'''solbai''' is called an part verb ???
 
== ..... Some linguistic terms in béu==
 
By the way, while we are at it (defining linguistic terms)
 
'''nandau''' = word ... this has been given already
 
'''semo''' = a clause ... from the verb "to say" '''sema'''
 
'''semoza''' = a sentence
 
'''gomuaza''' = a verb phrase or verb complex (commonly called a "predicate" by linguists)
 
'''feŋgi''' = a particle ... given above
 
'''plova''' = a participle (P) ... there are 3 participles in béu, also there is a thing called a '''plovaza''' ???
 
'''laite''' = a relative clause
 
'''kalope''' = a complement clause. There are three types of these ... '''kalope jù''', '''kalope tà''' and '''kalope tavoi'''
 
An alternative name for a '''kalope jù''' is a '''gomiaza''' (if it is more than one word long, if only one word, then the alternative name is simply '''gomia''')
 
A '''gomiaza''' is also a verb complex.
 
== ..... The verb complex or verb phrase ==
 
Also often called the predicate. Called the '''jaudauza''' in '''béu'''
 
The predicate is made up of ...
 
1) one of two particles that show likelihood which are optional.
 
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''mazebai'''. The '''mazebai''' are a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles)
 
2) one of five particles that show modality. These are also optional.
 
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''seŋgebai'''. The '''seŋgebai''' are a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles)
 
3) a '''gomua''' (a full verb)
 
=== '''mazebai''' ===
 
These appear first in the predicate.
 
These particles show the probability of the verb occurring.
 
1) '''màs solbori''' = maybe he drank
 
2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank
 
You could say that the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty
 
=== '''seŋgebai''' ===
 
These appear next in the predicate.
 
These particles correspond to what is called the "modal" words in English. The five '''seŋgeba''' are ...
 
1) '''meski'''  which codes for strong obligation or duty. It is equivalent to "should" in English. (Note ... in English certain instances of the word "must" also carries this meaning)
 
2) '''seŋga'''  which codes for weak obligation. It is equivalent to "ought to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "ought to" is dying out, and "should" is coding weak obligation also)
 
3) '''olda''' which codes for ability. It is equivalent to "can" in English. As in English it means that subject has the strength or the skill to perform the action. Also as in English it codes for possibilities/situations which are not dependent on the subject. For example ... '''udua olda solbur''' => "the camels can drink" in the context of "the caravan finally reached Farafra Oasis"
 
4) '''hempi''' which codes for permission. It is equivalent to "may" or "to be allowed to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "may" is dying out, and "can" is coding for permission also)
 
5) '''hentai''' means knowledge. It is equivalent to "know how to" in English. (Note ... in English certain instances of the word "can" also carries this meaning)
 
 
The form that these '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb take appears strange. Where as, logically, you would expect the suffixes for person, number, tense, aspect and evidential to be attached to the '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb maybe in its infinitive form, the '''seŋgeba''' do not change their form and the suffixes appear on the main verb as normal. This is one oddity that marks the '''seŋgeba''' off as a separate word class.<sup>*</sup>
 
Some examples ...
 
1)
 
a) '''meski -er'''  => you should visit your brother
 
b) '''meski -eri''' => you should have visited your brother
 
c) '''meski -erka''' => you should not feed the animals
 
d) '''meski -erki''' => you shouldn't have fed the animals
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza meskua'''
 
2)
 
a) '''seŋga -er'''  => you ought to eat a little
 
b) '''seŋga -eri''' => you ought to have eaten a little
 
c) '''seŋga -erka'''  => you ought to not drink brandy
 
d) '''seŋga -erki'''  => you ought to have not drank
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza seŋgua'''
 
3)
 
a) '''olda -or''' => he can swim across the river
 
b) '''olda -ori''' => he could swim across the river
 
c) '''olda solborka''' => he can stop drinking
 
d) '''olda solborki''' => he could stop drinking
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza oldua'''
 
4)
 
a) '''hempi -or''' => "she may go to the party" or "she can go to the party" or "she is allowed to go to the party"
 
b) '''hempi -ori''' => she was allowed to go to the party
 
c) '''hempi -orka''' => he is allowed to stop attending school
 
d) '''hempi -ori''' => he was allowed to stop attending school
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hempua'''
 
5)
 
a) '''hentai''' drive'''or''' => "she can drive a car" or "she knows how to drive a car"
 
b) '''hentai''' drive'''ori''' => she knew how to drive a car
 
c) '''hentai''' crash'''orka''' car => He has the ability not to crash the car
 
d) '''hentai''' crash'''orki''' car => He had the ability not to crash the car
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hentua'''
 
<sup>*</sup>Two other oddities also marks off the '''seŋgeba''' as a separate word class. These are ...
 
1) When you want to question a '''jaudauza''' containing a '''seŋgeba''' you change the position of the main verb and the '''seŋgeba'''. For example ...
 
go'''or hempi''' -or festaye''' => "may she go to the party" ... shades of English here.
 
2) All 5 '''seŋgeba''' can be negativized by deleting the final vowel and adding '''aiya'''. For example ...
 
'''oldaiya -or''' ??? => he can't swim across the river
 
 
 
Note ... sometimes the negative marker on the '''seŋgeba''' can occur along with the normal negative marker on the main verb to give an emphatic positive. Sometimes it produces a quirky effect. For example ...
 
'''jenes oldaiya humpor cokolate''' => Jane can't eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability to eat chocolates) ... for example she is a diabetic and can not eat anything sweet.
 
'''jenes olda humporka cokolate''' => Jane can '''not''' eat chocolates (Jane have the ability not to eat chocolates)... meaning she has the willpower to resist them.
 
'''jenes oldaiya humporka cokolate''' => Jane can not not eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability, not to eat chocolates) ... meaning she can't resist them.
 
 
 
There are 5 nouns that correspond to the 5 '''seŋgeba'''
 
'''mesko''' = duty
 
'''seŋgo''' = obligation
 
'''oldo''' = ability
 
'''hempo''' = permission or leave
 
'''hento''' = knowledge
 
---------------------
Note on English usuage (in fact all the Germanic languages) ... the way English handles negating modal words is a confusing. Consider "She can not talk". Since the modal is negated by putting "not" after it and the main verb is negated by putting "not" in front of it, this could either mean ...
 
a) She doesn't have the ability to talk
 
or
 
b) She has the ability to not talk
 
Note only when the meaning is a) can the proposition be contracted to "she can't talk". In fact, when the meaning is b), usually extra emphasis would be put on the "not". a) is the usual interpretation of "She can not talk" and if you wanted to express b) you would rephrase it to "She can keep silent". This rephrasing is quite often necessary in English when you have a modal and a negative main verb to express.
 
=== '''wepua''' ===
 
We have already mentioned the two '''mazeba''' at the beginning of this section.
 
Actually there is another particle that occurs in the same slot as the '''mazeba''' and it also codes for likelihood. This is '''wepua''' and it constitutes a subgroup of '''feŋgi''' (the particles) all by itself.
 
1) '''más solbori''' = maybe he drank
 
2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank
 
3) '''wepua solbori''' = he must have drank
 
You could say that while the first one indicates about 50% certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty, the third shows 100% certainty.
 
3) Indicates that some "evidence" or "background information" exists to allow the speaker to assert what he is saying. It also carries the meaning "there is no other conclusion given the evidence".This obviously has some functional similarities to the '''-s''' evidential. However the '''-s''' evidential carries less than 100 % certainty ...
 
'''solboris''' = I guess/suppose he drunk
 
'''wepua''' never appears in front of the first two '''seŋgebai'''. This is the difference between '''wepua''' and the '''mazebai'''.
 
The word '''wepua''' is derived from '''pè''' meaning "to need". '''pòi''' means necessities.'''wepua''' can be thought of as meaning something like "being necessary" or "of necessity".
 
== ..... How to ask a question in a sentence without a modal word==
 
We saw in the last section that by swapping the position of the modal and the full verb, we turn a declarative sentence into an interrogative sentence.
 
But how do we produce interrogatives when we don't have a modal.
 
Well to turn a normal statement into a polar question (i.e. a question that requires a YES/NO answer), we stick on the enclitic '''foi''' to the end of the first word in the sentence.
 
So from the declarative sentence ...
 
1) '''glà timpori báus''' = "A man hit the woman"
 
We can make the interrogative sentence ...
 
2) '''glavoi timpori báus''' = "Did a man that hit the woman"
 
If you want to query a particular element in the clause and not the clause as a whole, you stick '''foi''' on to the element that you want to query.
 
3) '''glà timporivoi báus''' = Did a man '''hit''' the woman ? (I thought that he had kicked her)
 
4) '''glà timpori bausfoi''' = Was it '''a man''' that hit the woman ? (I thought it was a boy)
 
And indeed a whole noun phrases can be brought into interrogative focus this way. For example ...
 
'''sa báu jutu devoi timpori jene''' = was it that big guy there that hit Jane.
 
But how do we focus on questioning "the woman" in the statement '''glà timpori báus'''
 
Well we could use the exact same device as in English.
 
'''ʃivoi (ro/ri) glà ta timpori báus''' = "Is/was it the woman that a man hit"
 
And actually use the same technic to focus on "a man". So 4) could also be expressed as ...
 
'''ʃivoi (ro) báu tas glà timpori''' = "Is it a man that hit the woman"
 
== ..... Pronouns ==
 
In this section we discuss pronouns and also introduce the S, A and O arguments.
 
'''béu''' is what is called an ergative language. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative. So let us explain what ergative means. Well in English we have 2 forms of the first person singular pronoun ... namely "I" and "me". Also we have 2 forms of the third person singular male pronoun ... namely "he" and "him". These two forms help determine who does what to whom. For example "I hit him" and "He hit me" have obviously different meanings (in English there is a fixed word order, which also helps. In '''béu''' the word order is free).
 
'''timpa''' = to hit  ... '''timpa''' is a verb that takes two nouns (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb).
 
'''pás ò timpari''' = I hit him
'''pà ós timpori''' = He hit me  ... OK in this case the protagonist marking in the verb also helps to make things disambiguous. But this will not always help, for example when both protagonists are third person singular.
 
So far so good. And we see that English and '''béu''' behave in the same way so far. But what happens when we take a verb that takes only one noun (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb). For example '''doika''' = "to walk". In English we have "he walked". However in '''béu''' we don't have '''*ós doikori''' but '''ò doikori''' (equivalent to saying "*him walked" in English). So this in a nutshell is what an ergative language is.
 
It is the convention to call the doer in a intransitive clause the S argument. For example '''ò<sub>S</sub> flomporta''' = She has tripped
 
It is the convention to call the doer in a transitive clause the A argument. For example '''ós<sub>A</sub> timpori jene''' = He hit Jane
 
It is the convention to call the "done to" in a transitive clause the O argument. For example '''ós timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = He hit Jane
 
The S was historically from the word "Subject" and the O historically from the word "Object", but it is best just to forget about that. In fact when I use the word "subject" I am talking about either the S argument or the A argument.
 
If you like you can say ;-
 
In English "him" is the "done to"(O argument) : "he" is the "doer"(S argument)  and the "doer to"(A argument).
 
In '''béu''' '''ò''' is the "done to"(O argument) and the "doer"(S argument) : '''ós''' is the "doer to"(A argument).
 
Below are two tables showing the two forms of the '''béu''' pronouns.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pás'''
  |align=center| we  (includes "you")
  |align=center| '''yúas'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we (doesn't include "you")
  |align=center| '''wías'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gís'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jés'''
  |-
  |align=center| he, she
  |align=center| '''ós'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''nús'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
    |}
 
 
[[Image:TW_68.png]]
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''yùa'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''nù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}
 
 
[[Image:TW_67.png]]
 
There could be another member it the above table. When a action is performed by somebody on themselves, a special particle '''tí''' is used.
 
Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in '''béu''' we do not say '''*pás pà timpari''', but '''pás tí timpari'''.
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in '''béu''' only one.
 
One other point ... '''béu''' has generally a pretty free word order. But in a sentence such as '''jene tí laudori''' (Jane washed herself) it would be pretty unusual to have the '''tí''' before '''jene'''
 
There is an emphatic pronouns based on the possessed form of '''bùa''' "body".  The emphatic forms are given below ;-
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me myself
  |align=center| '''bapua'''
  |align=center| we ourselves
  |align=center| '''bayua'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we ourselves
  |align=center| '''bawua'''
  |-
  |align=center| you yourself
  |align=center| '''bigua'''
  |align=center| you yourselves
  |align=center| '''bejua'''
  |-
  |align=center| him himself, her herself
  |align=center| '''bonua'''
  |align=center| them themselves
  |align=center| '''bunua'''
  |-
  |align=center| it itself
  |align=center| '''bisua'''
  |align=center| them themselves
  |align=center| '''bisua'''
  |}
 
The above forms come just after the normal pronouns and the two words stand in apposition. If a '''pilana''' is applied to one, it must be applied to the other as well. For example ;-
 
'''pás bapuas ò timparu''' => I myself will hit her
 
==..... 64 Adjectives==
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| good
  |align=center| '''bòi<sup>*</sup>'''
  |align=center| bad
  |align=center| '''kéu'''
  |-
  |align=center| long
  |align=center| '''yàu'''
  |align=center| short
  |align=center| '''wái'''
  |-
  |align=center| high, tall
  |align=center| '''hái'''
  |align=center| low, short
  |align=center| '''ʔàu'''
  |-
  |align=center| right, positive
  |align=center| '''lugu'''
  |align=center| left, negative
  |align=center| '''liʒi'''
  |-
  |align=center| white
  |align=center| '''ái'''
  |align=center| black
  |align=center| '''àu'''
  |-
  |align=center| young
  |align=center| '''sài'''
  |align=center| old (of a living thing)
  |align=center|  '''gáu'''
  |-
  |align=center| clever, smart
  |align=center| '''jini'''
  |align=center| stupid, thick
  |align=center| '''tumu'''
  |-
  |align=center| near
  |align=center| '''nìa'''
  |align=center| far
  |align=center| '''múa'''
  |-
  |align=center| new
  |align=center| '''yaipe'''
  |align=center| old, former, previous
  |align=center|  '''waufo'''
  |-
  |align=center| big
  |align=center| '''jutu'''
  |align=center| small
  |align=center| '''tiji'''
  |-
  |align=center| hot
  |align=center| '''fema'''
  |align=center| cold
  |align=center| '''pona'''
  |-
  |align=center| open
  |align=center| '''nava'''
  |align=center| close
  |align=center| '''mapa'''
  |-
  |align=center| simple, easy
  |align=center| '''baga'''
  |align=center| complex, difficult, hard
  |align=center| '''kaza'''
  |-
  |align=center| sharp
  |align=center| '''naike'''
  |align=center| blunt
  |align=center| '''maubo'''
  |-
  |align=center| wet
  |align=center| '''nuco'''
  |align=center| dry
  |align=center| '''mide'''
  |-
  |align=center| empty
  |align=center| '''fene'''
  |align=center| full
  |align=center| '''pomo'''
  |-
  |align=center| fast
  |align=center| '''saco'''
  |align=center| slow
  |align=center| '''gade'''
  |-
  |align=center| strong
  |align=center| '''yubu'''
  |align=center| weak
  |align=center| '''wiki'''
  |-
  |align=center| heavy
  |align=center| '''wobua'''
  |align=center| light
  |align=center| '''yekia'''
  |-
  |align=center| beautiful
  |align=center| '''hauʔe'''
  |align=center| ugly
  |align=center| '''ʔaiho'''
  |-
  |align=center| contiguous, touching
  |align=center| '''yotia'''
  |align=center| apart, separate
  |align=center| '''wejua'''
  |-
  |align=center| fat
  |align=center| '''somua'''
  |align=center| thin, skinny
  |align=center| '''genia'''
  |-
  |align=center| bright
  |align=center| '''selia'''
  |align=center| dull, dim
  |align=center| '''golua'''
  |-
  |align=center| thin
  |align=center| '''pilia'''
  |align=center| thick
  |align=center| '''fulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| east, dawn, sunrise
  |align=center| '''cúa'''
  |align=center| west, dusk, sundown
  |align=center| '''dìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| tight
  |align=center| '''taitu'''
  |align=center| slack, loose
  |align=center|  '''jauji'''
  |-
  |align=center| neat
  |align=center| '''ilia'''
  |align=center| untidy
  |align=center| '''ulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| soft
  |align=center| '''fuje'''
  |align=center| hard
  |align=center| '''pito'''
  |-
  |align=center| wide/broad
  |align=center| '''juga'''
  |align=center| narrow
  |align=center| '''tisa'''
  |-
  |align=center| rough
  |align=center| '''gaʔu'''
  |align=center| smooth
  |align=center| '''sahi'''
  |-
  |align=center| deep
  |align=center| '''gubu'''
  |align=center| shallow
  |align=center| '''siki'''
  |-
  |align=center| right
  |align=center| '''sèu'''
  |align=center| wrong
  |align=center| '''gói'''
  |}
 
In the above list, it can be seen that each pair of adjectives have pretty much the exact opposite meaning. However in '''béu''' there is ALSO a relationship between the sounds that make up these words. 
 
In fact every element of a word is a mirror image (about the L-A axis in the chart below) of the corresponding element in the word with the opposite meaning.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔ''' 
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''m'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''y'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''j'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''au'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''f'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''o'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''b'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''oi'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''g'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''i'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''d'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ia'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|  '''high tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''l'''
  |align=center| ===========================
  |align=center| '''a'''
  |align=center| ============================
  |align=left|  '''neutral'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''c'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ua'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|'''low tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''u'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''k'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''eu'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''p'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''e'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''t'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''ai'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''w'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
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  |-
  |align=center| '''n'''
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  |-
  |align=center| '''h'''
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  |}
 
<sup>*</sup> Note that the adverb version of this word is slightly irregular. Instead of '''boiwe''' it is '''bowe'''. People often shout this when impressed with some athletic feat or sentiment voiced ... '''bowe bowe''' => well done => bravo bravo
 
Also instead of '''keuwe''' we have '''kewe'''. People often shout '''kewe kewe kewe''' if they are unimpressed with some athletic feat or disagree with a sentiment expressed. Equivalent to "Booo boo".
 
== ..... Adjectives and how they pervade other parts of speech==
 
Earlier on in this chapter we discussed parts of speech. In béu, sometimes, an unmodified word can belong to 2 or 3 different parts of speech at once.
 
Also earlier on I introduced the '''gomua''' (G) or the infinitive, as a part of speech. This is the "base form" of the verb and it resembles a noun in many respects. It is being treated as a seperate part of speech ... just for convenience really. I do not want to get into an argument about linguistic theories etc. etc. This is just to make things easy to discuss.
 
Let us start of with a single-syllable adjective. Let us see what forms a single-syllable adjective can take and what "parts of speech" these forms can belong to. Consider the word '''gèu''' "green" ;-
 
 
[[Image:TW_103.png]]
 
Along the top of the above chart you can see N, A, V and G (noun, adjective, verb and '''gomua''').
 
The form under these 4 headings, shows the form '''gèu''' takes when it is one of these 4 parts of speech. '''gèu''' is fundamentally an adjective (that is what the thicker border around the "A" means).
 
You can see that we have two nouns forms in the above chart. One has its original form, I call this one "the substansive noun" (meaning "the green one"). The other changes its form by taking the affix '''-n'''. I call this one "the qualitative noun" (meaning "greenness").
 
We can see that we can derive a verb from '''gèu'''. By affixing '''-s''' we get an transitive verb meaning "to make green". You can see that the '''V'''-forms and the '''G'''-forms are the same.
 
Actually the '''V'''-form is not '''gèus'''. The '''V'''-form is actually a myriad of forms. But they are all built up from the '''gèus''' foundations. As an example let us build up one of the myriad of forms that the '''V'''-form can take. First we add a vowel, either '''a''', '''i''', '''o''', '''u''', '''e''', '''au''' or '''ai''', that represents the subject ... then we add, either '''r''', '''n''' or '''s''' (depending on if we want the indicative mood, the subjunctive nood or the imperative) ... then we add a vowel (or consonant + vowel) as a tense/aspect marker, either ???  ... then we possibly add an evidential marker, either '''n''', '''s''' or '''a'''. So we could get  '''geus''' + '''i''' + '''r''' + '''i'''  +'''a''' => '''geuʃiria''' = "you became green, I saw it" ... one of the many forms considered as a '''V'''-form.
 
OK. We have seen how a single-syllable adjective works. Now for a 2-syllable adjective. Consider the word '''naike''' "sharp" ;-
 
 
[[Image:TW_104.png]]
 
We can see that in this case it is possible to have 3 parts of speech from only one form. However in this case the "finite" verb (V) is built up directly from '''naike''' and not from the '''G'''-form. So, for example, we have '''naikiria''' = "you sharpened (it), I saw you do it". Rather than '''*naikeʃiria'''.
 
Notice that all the derived verbs are transitive. There are three ways that we can make an intransitive clause.
 
1) '''pintu tí mapori''' = The door closed itself ... this form strongly implies that there was no human agent. Possibly the wind closed the door (or a supernatural element when it comes to that).
 
2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = The door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
 
3) '''pintu lí mapa''' = The door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.  This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
 
By the way, the '''G'''-form of '''nava''' "open" is '''navai'''
 
Let us go back to '''gèu''' and consider '''gèu''' in an intransitive clause. As above we have 3 ways.
 
1) '''báu tí geusori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved.
 
2) '''báu bwori gèus''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
 
3) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.  This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
 
--------------
 
Notice that '''naikes''' means the same as '''kyé sau naike''' (to give to be sharp) ... but why say this mouthful when you can simply say '''naikes'''.
 
--------------
 
Any single syllable adjective, must have the suffix '''du''' in all its verbal forms. For example ;-
 
'''àus''' = to blacken, '''maŋkeu''' = faces
 
'''ausuri maŋkiteu''' = they blackened their faces ... interesting construction ... we use the transitive form even tho' they perform the action on themselves.
 
And so ends chapter 2 ...
 
== ..... Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

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