Béu : Chapter 2: Difference between revisions

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== ..... The parts of speech of béu==
{{Deletion|Staigard|Well I have moved all the data somewhere else}}


"Parts of speech" is linguistic jargon, which is referring to the different "classes" of words a language might have. For example "nouns", "verbs", etc. etc.


In fact nouns (N), verbs (V) and adjectives (A) are the big three, and after some debate over the last 30 years, it has been agreed that every language has these three word classes.
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In '''béu''' a noun is called '''cwidau''' ('''cwì''' meaning a physical object), a verb is called '''jaudau''' ('''jàu''' meaning "to move"), and an adjective is called '''saidau''' ('''sái''' meaning "a colour").
 
There are other classes of words in '''béu''' as there are in other languages. '''béu''' has adverbs ('''wedau''') but these don't really come into their own, being more a form an adjective takes in certain situations. Also a lot of words that are called adverbs in English are called particles ('''feŋgia''') (F) in '''béu'''. Particles are a type of hold-all category for a word that doesn't fit into any of the other classes. Under the term "particle" many subclasses can be defined, and in fact some subclasses have a class membership of one. Anyway we will not talk about particles again. But if you come across a word that can not be equated with any of the other word classes ... well then you know that you have a '''feŋgi'''.
 
It is necessary to talk about another part of speech which i will refer to by the '''béu''' term '''gomia'''<sup>*</sup> (G). It is a form of the verb which is called the "infinitive" in the Western linguistic tradition.
 
<sup>*</sup> '''goma''' means "tail" and '''gomia''' means "tail-less". The reason for this is that a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs commonly do, has person, number, tense, aspect and evidentiality expressed on the verb as series of suffixes, hence the "tail". These items are not expressed on the '''gomia'''.
 
In contradistinction to '''gomia''' we have '''gomua''' ('''jaudau gomua''' to give the concept its full title) which is a verb in a sentence functioning as verbs typically do.
 
For example '''solbarin''' (I drank, so they say) is a '''gomua'''.
 
'''solbarin''' is built up from the '''gomia''' "'''solbe'''" ... 1) first you delete the final vowel. 2) then you add "'''a'''" meaning first person singular subject. 3) then you add "'''r'''" meaning that the mood is indicative ?? (as opposed to imperative or subjunctive). 4) then you add "'''i'''" meaning simple past tense. 5) then you add "'''n'''" which is an evidential, meaning that the utterance is based on what other people have said.
 
'''solbarin''' is '''gomua pomo''' or "a full tail verb".
 
The three evidential markers are all optional, so they can quite easily be dropped. '''solbari''' (I drank) is what is called '''gomua yàu''' or "a long tail verb".
 
'''solbis''' (you lot drink) and '''solbon''' (let him drink) are '''gomua wái''' or "a short tail verbs" ... the first is an example of the imperative and the second is an example of the subjunctive (more linguistic jargon ... sorry).
 
-----------------
 
'''solbai''' is called an part verb ???
 
== ..... Some linguistic terms in béu==
 
By the way, while we are at it (defining linguistic terms)
 
'''nandau''' = word ... this has been given already
 
'''semo''' = a clause ... from the verb "to say" '''sema'''
 
'''semoza''' = a sentence
 
'''gomuaza''' = a verb phrase or verb complex ... commonly called a "predicate" by my favourite linguistic writers
 
'''feŋgi''' = a particle ... given above
 
'''plova''' = a participle (P) ... there are 3 participles in béu, also there is a thing called a '''plovaza'''
 
== ..... Building up a noun phrase ... "cwidauza"==
 
Now we talk about the '''béu''' noun phrase ('''cwidauza'''). This can be described as ;-
 
Quantifier<sub>1</sub> Head<sub>2</sub> (Adjective<sub>3</sub> x n) Genitive<sub>4</sub> Determiner<sub>5</sub> Relative-clause<sub>6</sub>
 
1) The Quantifier is either a number or a word such as "all", "many", "a few" etc.
 
2) The head is usually a noun but can also be an adjective. When you come across an adjective as head of a noun phrase, its meaning is "the person/thing that is "adjective" ".
 
3) An adjective ... not much to say about this one, you can have as many as you like, the same as English.
 
4) A Genitive is made from a noun (and I guess an adjective as defined in 2) ) with an '''n''' suffix. It says that the head has some quality or relationship to the genitive.
 
5) Either '''dí''' "this", or '''dè''' "that".
 
6) This is a clause, beginning with '''tà''' that qualifies the head of the noun phrase.
 
An interesting point is that in the absence of a "head" any of the other 5 elements can constitute a NP by itself.
 
== ..... Another type of noun phrase ... "gomiaza"==
 
'''gomiaza''' has at its heart '''gomia'''. Every '''gomiaza''' haa an equivalent clause, which have a '''gomua''' as their heart.
 
The clause has free word order. However the word order of the '''gomiaza''' is fixed. For example;-
 
'''(pás) solbari  moze sacowe''' or '''(pás) solbari saco moze''' =>  I drank the water quickly
 
As a '''gomiaza''' this clause would be '''pà solbe moze saco''' => My drinking of the water quickly.  ... Note that '''pà''' can not be dropped. Also it is in its plain or unmarked form (i.e. no '''-s''' stuck on).
 
Note the word order ... "A" argument followed by '''gomia''' followed by "O" argument followed by adverb (any other peripheral arguments are stuck on at the end).
 
A '''gomiaza''' has the same roll in a sentence as a normal noun phrase ('''cwidauza'''). For example
 
'''sa''' ''RAF'' '''kalme''' ''Luftwaffe'' '''kyori''' ''Hitler'''''ye olga tena''' => The RAF's destruction of the Luftwaffe, made Hitler think again. ... here a '''gomiaza''' acts as the A-argument.
 
Notice that the above sentence has the exact same structure as the first sentence of the previous section.
 
Also note that ''Hitler'' '''olga tena''' would be '''gomiaza''' with the meaning "Hitler's thinking again". However ''Hitler'''''ye olga tena''' is not. For one thing, no '''pilana''' is allowed to "split" a '''gomiaza'''. However '''olga tena''' certainly is.
 
===The '''plovaza'''===
 
The '''plovaza''' (adjective phrase) is a clause that sets the scene for the main action.
1) "waiting on tables six nights a week", Kirsty had come to know all the regular customers // "their mains flowing", they ran across the field and down to the river.
 
2) "his leg broken", he slowly crawled up the sand dune and ...
 
3) "having to pack all the stereos before lunch", he did not stop for a tea-break.
 
------
In English grammar this is called a nominative absolute construction. It is a free-standing (absolute) part of a sentence that describes or modifies the main subject and verb. It is usually at the beginning or end of the sentence, although it can also appear in the middle. Its parallel is the ablative absolute in Latin, or the genitive absolute in Greek.
------
 
== The verb complex or verb phrase ==
 
Also often called the predicate. Called the '''jaudauza''' in '''béu'''
 
The predicate is made up of ...
 
1) one of two particles that show likelihood which are optional.
 
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''mazeba'''. The '''mazeba''' are a subgroup of  particles '''feŋgi'''
 
2) one of five particles that show modality. These are also optional.
 
In the béu linguistic tradition they are called '''seŋgeba'''. The '''seŋgeba''' are a subgroup of  particles '''feŋgi'''
 
3) a full verb or '''gomua'''
 
--------
 
'''mazebai'''
 
These appear first in the predicate.
 
These particles show the probability of the verb occurring.
 
1) '''más solbori''' = maybe he drank
 
2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank
 
You could say that the first one indicates about 50 certainty while the second indicates around 90 % certainty
 
-------------
 
'''seŋgeba'''
 
These appear next in the predicate
 
These particles correspond to what is called the "modal" words in English. The five '''seŋgeba''' are ...
 
1) '''meski'''  which codes for strong obligation or duty. It is equivalent to "should" in English. (Note ... in English certain instances of the word "must" also carries this meaning)
 
2) '''seŋga'''  which codes for weak obligation. It is equivalent to "ought to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "ought to" is dying out, and "should" is coding weak obligation also)
 
3) '''olda''' which codes for ability. It is equivalent to "can" in English. As in English it means that subject has the strength or the skill to perform the action. Also as in English it codes for possibilities/situations which are not dependent on the subject. '''udua olda solbur''' => "the camels can drink" in the context of "the caravan finally reached Farafra Oasis"
 
4) '''hempi''' which codes for permission. It is equivalent to "may" or "to be allowed to" in English. (Note ... in certain dialects of English "may" is dying out, and "can" is coding for permission also)
 
5) '''hentai''' means knowledge. It is equivalent to "know how to" in English. (Note ... in English certain instances of the word "can" also carries this meaning)
 
The form that these '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb take appears strange. Where as, logically, you would expect the suffixes for person, number, tense, aspect and evidential to be attached to the '''seŋgeba''' and the main verb maybe in its infinitive form, the '''seŋgeba''' do not change their form and the suffixes appear on the main verb as normal.
 
This is one characteristic that marks the '''seŋgeba''' off as a separate word class.<sup>*</sup>
 
 
1)
 
a) '''meski -er'''  => you should visit your brother
 
b) '''meski -eri''' => you should have visited your brother
 
c) '''meski -erko''' => you should not feed the animals
 
d) '''meski -erki''' => you shouldn't have fed the animals
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza meskua'''
 
2)
 
a) '''seŋga -er'''  => you ought to eat a little
 
b) '''seŋga -eri''' => you ought to have eaten a little
 
c) '''seŋga -erko'''  => you ought to not drink brandy
 
d) '''seŋga -erki'''  => you ought to have not drank
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza seŋgua'''
 
3)
 
a) '''olda -or''' => he can swim across the river<sup>*</sup>
 
b) '''olda -ori''' => he could swim across the river
 
c) '''olda -oru''' => he will be able swim across the river
 
d) '''olda solborko''' => he can stop drinking
 
e) '''olda solborki''' => he could stop drinking
 
f) '''olda solboru''' => he will be able to stop drinking
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza oldua'''
 
4)
 
a) '''hempi -or''' => "she may go to the party" or "she can go to the party" or "she is allowed to go to the party"
 
b) '''hempi -ori''' => she was allowed to go to the party
 
c) '''hempi -oru''' => she will be allowed to go to the party
 
d) '''hempi -orko''' => he is allowed to stop attending school
 
e) '''hempi -ori''' => he was allowed to stop attending school
 
f) '''hempi -oru''' => he will be allowed to stop attending school
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hempua'''
 
5)
 
a) '''hentai''' drive'''or''' => "she can drive a car" or "she knows how to drive a car"
 
b) '''hentai''' drive'''ori''' => she knew how to drive a car
 
c) '''hentai''' drive'''oru''' => "she will know how to drive a car" or "she will be able to drive a car"
 
d) '''hentai''' crash'''orko''' car => He has the ability not to crash the car
 
e) '''hentai''' crash'''orki''' car => He had the ability not to crash the car
 
f) '''hentai''' crash'''orku''' car => He will have the ability not to crash the car
 
Note these are the tenses allowed in a '''jaudauza hentua'''
 
 
<sup>*</sup>Two other oddities also marks off the '''seŋgeba''' as a separate word class.
 
1) When you want to question a '''jaudauza''' containing a '''seŋgeba''' you change the possition of the main verb and the '''seŋgeba'''. For example ...
 
go'''or hempi''' -or festaye''' => "may she go to the party" ... shade of the English way here.
 
2) All 5 '''seŋgeba''' can be negativized by deleting the final vowel and adding '''aiya'''. For example ...
 
'''oldaiya -or''' ??? => he can't swim across the river
 
Note ... sometimes the negative marker on the '''seŋgeba''' can occur along with the normal negative marker on the main verb to give an emphatic positive. Sometimes it produces a quirky effect. For example ...
 
'''jene oldaiya  humpor cokolate''' => Jane can't eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability to eat chocolates) ... for example she is a diabetic and can not eat anything sweet.
 
'''jene olda  humporko cokolate''' => Jane can '''not''' eat chocolates (Jane have the ability not to eat chocolates)... meaning she has the willpower to resist them.
 
'''jene oldaiya humporko cokolate''' => Jane can not not eat chocolates (Jane lacks the ability, not to eat chocolates) ... meaning she can't resist them.
 
---------------------
 
There are 5 nouns that correspond to the 5 '''seŋgeba'''
 
1) '''mesko'''  means strong obligation or duty
 
2) '''seŋgo'''  means weak obligation
 
3) '''oldo''' means ability
 
4) '''hempo'''  means permission
 
5) '''hento''' means knowledge
 
-----------------------
 
'''wepua'''
 
We have already mentioned the two '''mazeba'''
 
There is another particle that occurs in the same slot as the '''mazeba'''. This is '''wepua''' and '''wepua''' constitutes a subgroup of  particles '''feŋgi''' all by itself.
 
1) '''más solbori''' = maybe he drank
 
2) '''lói solbori''' = probably he drank
 
3) '''wepua solbori''' = he must have drank
 
You could say that 1) carries about 50 certainty, 2) carries around 90 % certainty, and 3) carries 100 %.
3) also carries the meaning "there is no other explanation for the evidence".
 
3) indicates that some "evidence" or "background information" exists to allow the speaker to assert what he is saying.
This obviously has some functional similarities to the '''-s''' evidential. However the '''-s''' evidential carries less than 100 % certainty ...
 
'''solboris''' = I guess he (has) drank
 
Note ... maybe you have noticed before that the first two '''seŋgeba''' take only 4 tense forms while the rest take six. Another difference of the first two from the rest is that they can not follow '''wepua'''
--------------
 
6) '''ʔoko''' means boldness
 
7) '''makoi''' means desire
 
 
 
 
8) '''foi''' is a verb meaning "to do".
 
And I should mention how to put these in the interrogative mood ???
 
The negative => '''meski''' => '''meskaiya'''
 
NOTE ... the negator '''-ya''' is also used with '''gaza'''. Also '''ta?''' means that, while '''taya''' means "lest".
 
==..... Pronouns and what is meant by S, A and O==
 
'''béu''' is what is called an ergative language. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative. So let us explain what ergative means. Well in English we have 2 forms of the first person singular pronoun ... namely "I" and "me". Also we have 2 forms of the third person singular male pronoun ... namely "he" and "him". These two forms help determine who does what to whom. For example "I hit him" and "He hit me" have obviously different meanings (in English there is a fixed word order, which also helps. In '''béu''' the word order is free).
 
'''timpa''' = to hit  ... '''timpa''' is a verb that takes two nouns (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb).
 
'''pás ò timpari''' = I hit him
'''pà ós timpori''' = He hit me  ... OK in this case the protagonist marking in the verb also helps to make things disambiguous. But this will not always help, for example when both protagonists are third person singular.
 
So far so good. And we see that English and '''béu''' behave in the same way so far. But what happens when we take a verb that takes only one noun (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb). For example '''doika''' = "to walk". In English we have "he walked". However in '''béu''' we don't have '''*ós doikori''' but '''ò doikori''' (equivalent to saying "*him walked" in English). So this in a nutshell is what an ergative language is.
 
It is the convention to call the doer in a intransitive clause the S argument. For example '''ò<sub>S</sub> flomporta''' = She has tripped
 
It is the convention to call the doer in a transitive clause the A argument. For example '''ós<sub>A</sub> timpori jene''' = He hit Jane
 
It is the convention to call the "done to" in a transitive clause the O argument. For example '''ós timpori jene<sub>O</sub>''' = He hit Jane
 
The S was historically from the word "Subject" and the O historically from the word "Object", but it is best just to forget about that. In fact when I use the word "subject" I am talking about either the S argument or the A argument.
 
If you like you can say ;-
 
In English "him" is the "done to"(O argument) : "he" is the "doer"(S argument)  and the "doer to"(A argument).
 
In '''béu''' '''ò''' is the "done to"(O argument) and the "doer"(S argument) : '''ós''' is the "doer to"(A argument).
 
Below are two tables showing the two forms of the '''béu''' pronouns.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| I
  |align=center| '''pás'''
  |align=center| we  (includes "you")
  |align=center| '''yúas'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we (doesn't include "you")
  |align=center| '''wías'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gís'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jés'''
  |-
  |align=center| he, she
  |align=center| '''ós'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''nús'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
  |align=center| they
  |align=center| '''ʃís'''
    |}
 
 
[[Image:TW_68.png]]
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me
  |align=center| '''pà'''
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''yùa'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| us
  |align=center| '''wìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| you
  |align=center| '''gì'''
  |align=center| you (plural)
  |align=center| '''jè'''
  |-
  |align=center| him, her
  |align=center| '''ò'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''nù'''
  |-
  |align=center| it
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
  |align=center| them
  |align=center| '''ʃì'''
    |}
 
 
[[Image:TW_67.png]]
 
There could be another member it the above table. When a action is performed by somebody on themselves, a special particle '''tí''' is used.
 
Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in '''béu''' we do not say '''*pás pà timpari''', but '''pás tí timpari'''.
 
LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in '''béu''' only one.
 
One other point ... '''béu''' has generally a pretty free word order. But in a sentence such as '''jene tí laudori''' (Jane washed herself) it would be pretty unusual to have the '''tí''' before '''jene'''
 
There is an emphatic pronouns based on the possessed form of '''bùa''' "body".  The emphatic forms are given below ;-
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| me myself
  |align=center| '''bapua'''
  |align=center| we ourselves
  |align=center| '''bayua'''
  |-
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center| we ourselves
  |align=center| '''bawua'''
  |-
  |align=center| you yourself
  |align=center| '''bigua'''
  |align=center| you yourselves
  |align=center| '''bejua'''
  |-
  |align=center| him himself, her herself
  |align=center| '''bonua'''
  |align=center| them themselves
  |align=center| '''bunua'''
  |-
  |align=center| it itself
  |align=center| '''bisua'''
  |align=center| them themselves
  |align=center| '''bisua'''
  |}
 
The above forms come just after the normal pronouns and the two words stand in apposition. If a '''pilana''' is applied to one, it must be applied to the other as well. For example ;-
 
'''pás bapuas ò timparu''' => I myself will hit her
 
==..... 64 Adjectives==
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| good
  |align=center| '''bòi<sup>*</sup>'''
  |align=center| bad
  |align=center| '''kéu'''
  |-
  |align=center| long
  |align=center| '''yàu'''
  |align=center| short
  |align=center| '''wái'''
  |-
  |align=center| high, tall
  |align=center| '''hái'''
  |align=center| low, short
  |align=center| '''ʔàu'''
  |-
  |align=center| right, positive
  |align=center| '''lugu'''
  |align=center| left, negative
  |align=center| '''liʒi'''
  |-
  |align=center| white
  |align=center| '''ái'''
  |align=center| black
  |align=center| '''àu'''
  |-
  |align=center| young
  |align=center| '''sài'''
  |align=center| old (of a living thing)
  |align=center|  '''gáu'''
  |-
  |align=center| clever, smart
  |align=center| '''jini'''
  |align=center| stupid, thick
  |align=center| '''tumu'''
  |-
  |align=center| near
  |align=center| '''nìa'''
  |align=center| far
  |align=center| '''múa'''
  |-
  |align=center| new
  |align=center| '''yaipe'''
  |align=center| old, former, previous
  |align=center|  '''waufo'''
  |-
  |align=center| big
  |align=center| '''jutu'''
  |align=center| small
  |align=center| '''tiji'''
  |-
  |align=center| hot
  |align=center| '''fema'''
  |align=center| cold
  |align=center| '''pona'''
  |-
  |align=center| open
  |align=center| '''nava'''
  |align=center| close
  |align=center| '''mapa'''
  |-
  |align=center| simple, easy
  |align=center| '''baga'''
  |align=center| complex, difficult, hard
  |align=center| '''kaza'''
  |-
  |align=center| sharp
  |align=center| '''naike'''
  |align=center| blunt
  |align=center| '''maubo'''
  |-
  |align=center| wet
  |align=center| '''nuco'''
  |align=center| dry
  |align=center| '''mide'''
  |-
  |align=center| empty
  |align=center| '''fene'''
  |align=center| full
  |align=center| '''pomo'''
  |-
  |align=center| fast
  |align=center| '''saco'''
  |align=center| slow
  |align=center| '''gade'''
  |-
  |align=center| strong
  |align=center| '''yubu'''
  |align=center| weak
  |align=center| '''wiki'''
  |-
  |align=center| heavy
  |align=center| '''wobua'''
  |align=center| light
  |align=center| '''yekia'''
  |-
  |align=center| beautiful
  |align=center| '''hauʔe'''
  |align=center| ugly
  |align=center| '''ʔaiho'''
  |-
  |align=center| contiguous, touching
  |align=center| '''yotia'''
  |align=center| apart, separate
  |align=center| '''wejua'''
  |-
  |align=center| fat
  |align=center| '''somua'''
  |align=center| thin, skinny
  |align=center| '''genia'''
  |-
  |align=center| bright
  |align=center| '''selia'''
  |align=center| dull, dim
  |align=center| '''golua'''
  |-
  |align=center| thin
  |align=center| '''pilia'''
  |align=center| thick
  |align=center| '''fulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| east, dawn, sunrise
  |align=center| '''cúa'''
  |align=center| west, dusk, sundown
  |align=center| '''dìa'''
  |-
  |align=center| tight
  |align=center| '''taitu'''
  |align=center| slack, loose
  |align=center|  '''jauji'''
  |-
  |align=center| neat
  |align=center| '''ilia'''
  |align=center| untidy
  |align=center| '''ulua'''
  |-
  |align=center| soft
  |align=center| '''fuje'''
  |align=center| hard
  |align=center| '''pito'''
  |-
  |align=center| wide/broad
  |align=center| '''juga'''
  |align=center| narrow
  |align=center| '''tisa'''
  |-
  |align=center| rough
  |align=center| '''gaʔu'''
  |align=center| smooth
  |align=center| '''sahi'''
  |-
  |align=center| deep
  |align=center| '''gubu'''
  |align=center| shallow
  |align=center| '''siki'''
  |-
  |align=center| right
  |align=center| '''sèu'''
  |align=center| wrong
  |align=center| '''gói'''
  |}
 
In the above list, it can be seen that each pair of adjectives have pretty much the exact opposite meaning. However in '''béu''' there is ALSO a relationship between the sounds that make up these words. 
 
In fact every element of a word is a mirror image (about the L-A axis in the chart below) of the corresponding element in the word with the opposite meaning.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| '''ʔ''' 
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''m'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''y'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''j'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''au'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''f'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''o'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''b'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''oi'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''g'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''i'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''d'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ia'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|  '''high tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''l'''
  |align=center| ===========================
  |align=center| '''a'''
  |align=center| ============================
  |align=left|  '''neutral'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''c'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|  '''ua'''
  |align=center|
  |align=left|'''low tone'''
  |-
  |align=center| '''s/ʃ'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''u'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''k'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''eu'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''p'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''e'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''t'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center| '''ai'''
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''w'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''n'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |-
  |align=center| '''h'''
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |align=center|
  |}
 
<sup>*</sup> Note that the adverb version of this word is slightly irregular. Instead of '''boiwe''' it is '''bowe'''. People often shout this when impressed with some athletic feat or sentiment voiced ... '''bowe bowe''' => well done => bravo bravo
 
Also instead of '''keuwe''' we have '''kewe'''. People often shout '''kewe kewe kewe''' if they are unimpressed with some athletic feat or disagree with a sentiment expressed. Equivalent to "Booo boo".
 
== ..... Adjectives and how they pervade other parts of speech==
 
Earlier on in this chapter we discussed parts of speech. In béu, sometimes, an unmodified word can belong to 2 or 3 different parts of speech at once.
 
Also earlier on I introduced the '''gomua''' (G) or the infinitive, as a part of speech. This is the "base form" of the verb and it resembles a noun in many respects. It is being treated as a seperate part of speech ... just for convenience really. I do not want to get into an argument about linguistic theories etc. etc. This is just to make things easy to discuss.
 
Let us start of with a single-syllable adjective. Let us see what forms a single-syllable adjective can take and what "parts of speech" these forms can belong to. Consider the word '''gèu''' "green" ;-
 
 
[[Image:TW_103.png]]
 
Along the top of the above chart you can see N, A, V and G (noun, adjective, verb and '''gomua''').
 
The form under these 4 headings, shows the form '''géu''' takes when it is one of these 4 parts of speech. '''gèu''' is fundamentally an adjective (that is what the thicker border around the "A" means).
 
You can see that we have two nouns forms in the above chart. One has its original form, I call this one "the substansive noun" (meaning "the green one"). The other changes its form by taking the affix '''-n'''. I call this one "the qualitative noun" (meaning "greenness").
 
We can see that we can derive a verb from '''géu'''. By affixing '''-s''' we get an transitive verb meaning "to make green". You can see that the '''V'''-forms and the '''G'''-forms are the same.
 
Actually the '''V'''-form is not '''gèus'''. The '''V'''-form is actually a myriad of forms. But they are all built up from the '''gèus''' foundations. As an example let us build up one of the myriad of forms that the '''V'''-form can take. First we add a vowel, either '''a''', '''i''', '''o''', '''u''', '''e''', '''au''' or '''ai''', that represents the subject ... then we add, either '''r''', '''n''' or '''s''' (depending on if we want the indicative mood, the subjunctive nood or the imperative) ... then we add a vowel (or consonant + vowel) as a tense/aspect marker, either ???  ... then we possibly add an evidential marker, either '''n''', '''s''' or '''a'''. So we could get  '''geus''' + '''i''' + '''r''' + '''i'''  +'''a''' => '''geuʃiria''' = "you became green, I saw it" ... one of the many forms considered as a '''V'''-form.
 
OK. We have seen how a single-syllable adjective works. Now for a 2-syllable adjective. Consider the word '''naike''' "sharp" ;-
 
 
[[Image:TW_104.png]]
 
We can see that in this case it is possible to have 3 parts of speech from only one form. However in this case the "finite" verb (V) is built up directly from '''naike''' and not from the '''G'''-form. So, for example, we have '''naikiria''' = "you sharpened (it), I saw you do it". Rather than '''*naikeʃiria'''.
 
Notice that all the derived verbs are transitive. There are three ways that we can make an intransitive clause.
 
1) '''pintu tí mapori''' = The door closed itself ... this form strongly implies that there was no human agent. Possibly the wind closed the door (or a supernatural element when it comes to that).
 
2) '''pintu bwori mapau''' = The door was closed ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
 
3) '''pintu lí mapa''' = The door became closed ... this uses the adjective form of '''mapa''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.  This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
 
By the way, the '''G'''-form of '''nava''' "open" is '''navai'''
 
Let us go back to '''gèu''' and consider '''gèu''' in an intransitive clause. As above we have 3 ways.
 
1) '''báu tí geusori''' = The man made himself green ... this form implies that there was some effort involved.
 
2) '''báu bwori gèus''' = The man was made green ... this is the standard passive form. It strongly implies a human agent but the agent is either unknown or unimportant.
 
3) '''báu lí gèu''' = The man became green ... this uses the adjective form of '''gèu''' and the "copula of becoming" '''láu'''.  This form has no implication as to the humanness of the agent.
 
--------------
 
Notice that '''naikes''' means the same as '''kyé sau naike''' (to give to be sharp) ... but why say this mouthful when you can simply say '''naikes'''.
 
--------------
 
Any single syllable adjective, must have the suffix '''du''' in all its verbal forms. For example ;-
 
'''àus''' = to blacken, '''maŋkeu''' = faces
 
'''ausuri maŋkiteu''' = they blackened their faces ... interesting construction ... we use the transitive form even tho' they perform the action on themselves.
 
== ..... '''pilana''' or the case system==
 
..
 
These are what in LINGUISTIC JARGON are called "cases". The classical languages, Greek and Latin had 5 or 6 of these. Modern-day Finnish has about 15 (it depends on how you count them, 1 or 2 are slowly fading away). Present day English still has a relic of a once more extensive case system : most pronouns have two forms. For example ;- the third-person:singular:male pronoun is "he" if it represents "the doer", but "him" if it represents "the done to".
 
The word '''pilana''' is built up from ;-
 
'''pila''' = to place, to position
 
'''pilana''' <= ('''pil<del>a</del>''' + '''ana'''), in LINGUISTIC JARGON it is called a "present participle".  It is an adjective which means "putting (something) in position".
 
As '''béu''' adjectives freely convert to nouns<sup>*</sup>, it also means "that which puts (something) in position" or "the positioner".
 
Actually only a few of them live up to this name ... nevertheless the whole set of 14 are called '''pilana''' in the '''béu''' linguistic tradition.
 
..
 
[[Image:TW_63.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_64.png]]
 
 
The '''pilana''' are suffixed to nouns and specify the roll these nouns play in the clause<sup>**</sup>.
 
The '''pilana''' are abbreviated to a single consonant in the '''béu''' writing system. That is, in the '''béu''' writing system, the final vowel of all '''pilana''' is invisible<sup>***</sup>.
 
The '''pilana''' are partly an aid to quicker writing. However they also demarcate a set of 14 affixes and make quite a neat system. 
 
You could call these 14 plus the unmarked noun a case system of 15 cases. Well you could if you wanted to (up to you).
 
Note that '''-lya''' and '''-lfe''' are represented by a special amalgamated symbols which do not occur elsewhere.
 
Notice that by a addition of '''pilana''', you might expect to get the forms '''alye''' and '''alfi'''. As you can see this is not the case. Perhaps the amalgamated form has the final vowel changed under the pull of the initial vowel, '''a'''.
 
<sup>*</sup> You can tell if '''pilana''' is being an adjective or a noun by the environment that you find it in.
 
<sup>**</sup>  Well actually that is not true of '''pilana''' number 12 : "'''-n'''" modifies a noun in a noun phrase.
 
<sup>***</sup>Maybe a corollary of the '''béu''' habit of dropping verbal arguments, when it is at all possible :-)
 
 
-----
 
Now one quirk of '''béu''' (something that I haven't heard of happening in any natural language), is that the '''pilana''' is sometimes realised as an affix to the head of the NP, but sometimes as a preposition in front of the entire NP. This behaviour can be accounted for with  thing with two rules.
 
1) The '''pilana''' attaches to the head and only to the head of the NP.
 
2) The NP is not allowed to be broken up by a '''pilana''', the whole thing must be contiguous. So it this case the affix must become a preposition and be placed in front of the entire noun phrase.
 
So if we have a NP with elements to the right of the head, then the '''pilana''' must become a preposition. The prepositional forms of the '''pilana''' are given on the above chart to the right. These free-standing particles are also written just using the symbols given on the above chart to the left. That is in writing they are shorn of their vowels as their affixed counter-parts are.
 
The letters m, b, k, g and d are free to be used as abbreviations. Perhaps m <= '''mò''', two particles for joining clauses etc. etc.
 
<sup>*</sup>Another case when the '''pilana''' must be expressed as a prepositions is when the noun ends in a constant. This happens very, very rarely but it is possible. For example '''toilwan''' is an adjective meaning "bookish". And in '''béu''' as adjectives can also act as nouns in certain positions, '''toilwan''' would also be a noun meaning "the bookworm". Another example is '''ʔokos''' which means "vowel".
 
== ..... '''noiga''' or simple arithmetic==
 
[[Image:TW_69.png]]
 
[[Image:TW_70.png]]
 
Above right you can see the numbers 1 -> 11 displayed. Notice that the forms of 1, 3, 6, 7 and 9 have been modified slightly before the "number bar" has been added.
 
In the bottom right you can see 7 interesting symbols. These are used to extend the range of the '''béu''' number system (remember the basic system only covers 1-> 1727). Their meanings are given in the table below.
 
{| border=1
  |align=center| elephant
  |align=center| '''huŋgu'''
  |-
  |align=center| rhino
  |align=center|  '''nàin'''
  |-
  |align=center| water buffalo
  |align=center| '''wúa'''
  |-
  |align=center| circle
  |align=center| '''omba'''
  |-
  |align=center| hare
  |align=center| '''yanfa'''
  |-
  |align=center| beetle
  |align=center| '''mulu'''
  |-
  |align=center| bacterium, bug
  |align=center| '''ʔiwetu'''
  |}
 
To give you an idea of how they are used, I have given you a very big number below.
 
[[Image:TW_77.png]]
 
Which is  => 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559,62 ... E represents eleven and T represents ten ... remember the number is in base 12.
 
O.K. this number has a ridiculous dynamic range. But this is for demonstration purposes only: if you can handle this number you can handle any number.
 
This monster would be pronounced '''aja huŋgu uvaila nàin ezaitauba wúa idauja omba idaizaupa yanfa elaibau mulu idaidauka ʔiwetu elaivau dó'''
 
Now the 7 "placeholders" are not really thought of as real numbers, they are markers only. Used in the same way that we would say "point"/"decimal" when reeling off a number.
 
When first introduced to this system, many people think that the '''béu''' culture must be untenable, however strangely enough the '''béu''' culture has lasted many thousands of year, despite the obvious confusion that must arise when they attempt to count elephants.
 
One further point of note ...
 
If you wanted to express a number represented by digits 2->4 from the LHS of the monster, you would say '''auvaidaula nàin''' .... the same way as we have in the Western European tradition.
However if you wanted to express a number represented digits 6 ->8 from the RHS of the monster, you would say '''yanfa elaibau'''  .... not the way we do it.  This is like saying "milli 630" instead of "630 micro".
 
To make a number negative the "number bar" is placed on the left. See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_71.png]]
 
Also a number can be made imaginary by adding a further stroke that touches the "number bar". See below ;-
 
[[Image:TW_73.png]]
 
As you can see above, there is no special sign for the "addition operation". The numbers are simply written one beneath the other. Similarly with subtraction but one number would be negative this time.
 
There is a special sign to indicate multiplication ('''+'''), and there is an equals sign ('''-''').
 
Division is the same as multiplication except that one of the numbers is in "fractional form".
 
There is an alternative multiplication/division notation : instead of using the '''+''' sign, the two quantities can instead be written side by side (see the example above).
 
-6 is pronounced '''ela liʒi''' ... '''liʒi''' means left or "negative
 
By the way '''lugu''' means right (as in right-hand-side) or positive.
 
4i is pronounced '''uga haspia''' ... and what does '''haspia''' mean, well it is the name of the little squiggle that touches the number bar, for one thing.
 
-4i is pronounced '''uga haspia liʒi'''
 
-1/10 is pronounced '''diapa liʒi'''
 
i/4 is pronounced '''duga haspia'''
 
And so ends chapter 2 ...
 
==Index==
 
{{Béu Index}}

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