Tsakxa verbs

Verbs in Tsakxa are comparatively heavily inflected, conjugating by aspect, mood and voice. There are two classes of verbs, the monopartite verbs (which have a single stem and are conjugated regularly) and the bipartite verbs (which have a bipartite stem and whose conjugation is far more complex and irregular).

Verbal roots

Verbs may either be active or stative. Most stative verbs correspond to adjectives in English and are used similarly, potentially with adjectival prefixes:

Mama pesh - a rich man - Mama anu-pesh - a man who is said to be rich - Mama atu-pesh-as - if the man had been rich

Active verbs may also be used as adjectives, in which case they correspond to present participles or relative clauses:

Mama ʔuwes - a man who eats

Bipartite verbs have two stems. These, however, may not be used as adjectives. Many bipartite verbs have monopartite, intransitive counterparts which are used for this purpose:

Mama aq - a man who walks, the walking man - as-aq - to walk somewhere

Commonalities

Polarity

Negativity is marked with the particle pa, which is placed in a variety of places depending on emphasis and personal taste. Reduplication to apa creates an emphatic 'no' or 'never':

Wen apa su se-wes - I never eat meat (meat never 1ps ABS^-3eat⁰)

An emphatic declarative is also possible with the particle ʔu which works in much the same way as pa:

Wen ʔu su se-wes - I always eat meat (meat DECL.EMPH 1ps ABS^-3-eat⁰)

Voice/agreement

Tsakxa has what is termed by Dawkins as an 'information saliency voice system'. The verb agrees with the 'main argument' or 'focus', which is usually the topic but can also introduce new information in some contexts. When the focus is the agent, the prefix is null:

Kangqa su ta-nxa - as for the beast, it saw me (beast 1ps see⁰-PERF¹)

When the focus is the patient, the prefix is a se- or a te depending on the animacy of the patient.

Wen se-wes - The meat is eaten (meat ABS^-3-eat⁰)

When the focus is an adverbial argument, it takes no case marking itself, but the prefix mimics the case marking (before allomorphy):

Waspa nqu-kaq-enxa - We sat down in the tent (tent INESS[INAN]^-3-sit⁰-PERF¹)

Tenqa umut-anxa qa-seweq - This gift is for Tenqa (Tenqa gift-this DAT[ANIM]^-3-intended⁰)

For an exhaustive list of agreement prefixes, see the section on agreement in monopartite verbs below.

Causativity

Causatives are formed simply by adding an ergative argument and demoting any existing ergative arguments to absolutives:

Pema Nunu-kxa te-utshu-nxa - Pema was made to commit suicide/was made to die by Nunu (Pema Nunu-ERG ABS[ANIM]^-3-die⁰-PERF¹)

Suffix slot

The suffix slot is the final slot in the verbal complex. All of the suffixes that attach here are clitics which may also attach to noun phrases and have various different purposes. Only one suffix may be placed in the slot, although in older texts it appears that these clitics could be stacked.

Conjunctive form

The conjunctive or participle form is derived from monopartite verbs simply with the suffix -u. Regular bipartite verbs form the conjunctive in much the same way after joining their two stems together, but many bipartite verbs have forms acquired by suppletion. The conjunctive form is used in sentences alongside a 'main verb'. The 'main verb' carries the vast majority of the inflection and grammatical information, which is then transferred to the conjunctive. This construction expresses two connected actions, with the connection determined by context:

Pema wen utshu-u enxa-nxa - Pema ate some meat and died (due to the meat) (Pema meat die-CONJ eat⁰-PERF¹)

The conjunctive form is also used in constructions such as 'I love eating meat':

A-su wen enxa-u miqat - I love eating meat (1ps meat eat-CONJ enjoy⁰)

Although the participle lacks much of the inflection found on other verbs, it is still inflected for the role of the focus, as are other verbs:

Wen se-enxa-u su miqat - Meat, I love eating it (meat ABS[INANIM]^-3-eat⁰-CONJ 1ps enjoy⁰)

Use with auxiliaries

There are a few verbs which act as auxiliaries in that they add a sense of, for example, particular motion. These verbs are never found in finite form (or, if they are, have a different meaning), only in conjunctive form alongside a different verb. They carry identical agreement to the verb they modify:

ush-u gives a sense of turning or movement away: Sesu-su ush-u atu-wa hut-ak - I would turn and go away from my sister (sister-PERSON turn⁰-CONJ³ CONTRAFACT^-1-go⁰ ABL[INANIM]³-go⁰)

nas-u is roughly equivalent to 'be able to': Su nas-u aq-el - I think I can walk (1ps can⁰-CONJ³ walk⁰-DUB²)

tuq-u is roughly equivalent to 'have to', 'must', 'should': Su tuq-u aq - I have to walk (1ps must⁰-CONJ³ walk⁰)

aʔ-u is an intensifier: Efan se-aʔ-u te-paʔ-enxa - Ivan was struck violently (Ivan ABS^-3-violent⁰-CONJ³ ABS[ANIM]^-3-strike-PERF¹)

Subordinating suffixes

Adjectival clauses

Adjectival clauses are formed by the incorporation of the verb within the noun phrase as an adjective. In this case, any case clitic may be placed within the suffix slot:

Mama ʔu-wes-akxa - The man that eats/is eating... (person INTRANS^-1-eat⁰-ERG³)

Mama su te-ta-nxa-kxa - The man that I saw... (person 1ps ABS[ANIM]^-3-see⁰-PERF¹-ERG³)

Adverbial clauses

Subordination of adverbial clauses is accomplished using the adverbial case suffixes. Note that the arguments of the adverbial verb form must precede it directly. For example:

A-su a-su-m te-ngqu-nxa-te su-qa wa-ak - I went when I (myself) was told (FOCUS-1ps FOCUS-1ps-REFL ABS[ANIM]^-3-command⁰-PERF¹-TEMP³ go⁰-go⁰

Note that the entire adverbial phrase can be placed in topical position:

A-su Nunu-kxa te-ngqu-nxa wa su-kxa et-ak - I went when I was told to by Nunu (FOCUS-1ps Nunu-ERG ABS[ANIM]^-3-command⁰-PERF¹ go⁰ 1ps-ERG TEMP³-go⁰)

Nominal clauses

Subordination of nominal clauses is accomplished using the ergative and absolutive (null) suffixes. Note that the verb's arguments must precede it directly.

A-su as-uʔ aʔ yem se-lup - I know what you want (TOPIC-1ps TOPIC-2ps 3ps want⁰ ABS[INANIM]^-3-know.something)

As-aʔ as-aʔ-em aʔ yem-ekxa se-tusha-nxa - He's going to be killed by what he wants (TOPIC-3ps TOPIC-3ps-REFL 3ps want⁰-ERG³ ABS[INANIM]^-3-kill⁰-PERF¹)

Like adverbial clauses, they may be fronted:

As-uʔ aʔ yem a-su se-lup - I know what you want (TOPIC-2ps 3ps want 3ps ABS[INANIM]^-3-know.something⁰)

Personal suffix

The personal suffix takes the form -(s)u for male speakers and -(s)a for female speakers. Its use is ill-defined and implies, generally, motion towards the speaker:

Wa-ak-u/Wa-ak-a - Come towards me (come⁰-come⁰-PERS³)

It can also imply benefit brought to the speaker:

Tekutaru aʔ-akxa te-a-nxa-sa - He told the doctor for me (doctor he-ERG ABS[ANIM]^-3-tell⁰-PERF¹-PERS³)

Or simply imply some kind of relation to the speaker in what is being said:

Nenqa ʔu-tashit-enxa-u - Nenqa read a something to me/read (a book) that I wrote (Nenqa GEN^-1-read⁰-PERF¹-PERS³)

Monopartite verbs

Monopartite verbs are by far the more common type of verb in Tsakxa. They have a single stem and can take up to three prefixes and two suffixes (not including the personal clitic, whose uses are discussed above):

Waspap Nenqakxa unqatuʔutashitenxas-u
					agreement (-3)	evidentiality (-2)	valency (-1)	stem (0)	aspect (1)	mood (2)	suffix (3)
waspa	-ep	-ø	Nenqa	-kxa	unq-	atu-	ʔu-	tashet	-enxa	-s	-u
tent	-that	-TOPIC	Nenqa	-ERG	INESS[INANIM]-	CONTRAFACT-	INTRANS-	read	-PERF	-SUBJ	-PERS
Had Nenqa deliberately read something that relates to me/read something to me in that tent (that we can see) (and have been talking about) (but he hasn't)

Agreement

All verbs agree with the focussed element, expressing the grammatical relationship of the element with the rest of the sentence through a prefix which is mostly identical (before allomorphy) to or a contracted version of the standard case suffix that would otherwise be attached to the noun in a non-focussed context. This is the first prefix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ^-3. The prefix varies based on whether the argument is animate or inanimate.

Case (suffix)	Prefix (animate)	Prefix (inanimate)	Usage
Ergative (-kxa)	ø-	ø-	Shows the volitive agent
Absolutive (-ø)	te-	se-	Shows the patient or non-volitive agent
Dative (-(q)a)	q(a)-	a-	Shows a genitive, beneficiary or indirect object
Comitative/locative (-(t)a)	ta-	sa-	Shows a locative with place names ('in', 'to'), 'and', 'with', 'by', instrumental uses: 'using'
Inessive (-(u)nqa)	enq(u)-	unq(u)-	Inside (a hollow object, building etc), into, in
Intrative (-(u)ngxu)	(e)ngx(u)-	ungx(u)-	Among, amidst, between
Ablative (-ut)	hu(t)-	u(t)-	Out of, outside, by, near, away from
Subessive (-fa)	p-	f-	Under, down into, beneath
Adessive (-atqe)	tq(a)-	sh(a)-	On, above, up into, up onto
Temporal (-te)	-	(e)t-	At (time), during, for (an amount of time)

Evidentiality

All verbs carry inflection for evidentiality. This is the second prefix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ^-2. There are three degrees of evidentiality:

Certainty (marked by the prefix ø-), used when the speaker observed the act in question or is certain that it occurred:

Sesu-ø uʔ-a te-ta-nxa - your sister saw you (sister-TOPIC 2ps-DAT ABS[ANIM]^-3-see⁰-PERF¹)

In future contexts use of the null prefix is emphatic:

Nenqa patangqate te-ta-nxa - I WILL see Nenqa tomorrow (nenqa tomorrow ABS[ANIM]^-3-see⁰-PERF¹)

Uncertainty, marked by the prefix anu-, is used for reported speech and events that may have happened:

Nenqa te-anu-ta-nxa - you saw Nenqa (didn't you?) (nenqa ABS[ANIM]^-3-UNCERTAIN^-2-see-PERF¹)

There is a strong overlap with the dubitative here - original analyses treated this as a circumfix with the dubitative suffix but there are instances of one occurring without the other. The dubitative implies something slightly different from the anu- prefix - anu- simply confirms that the speaker was not present at the event and cannot vouch completely for what happened. The dubitative gives a degree of actual distancing from the event:

Nenqa aʔ te-anu-ta-nxa - I believe that he saw Nenqa (but I wasn't actually present at the time) (nenqa 3ps ABS[ANIM]^-3-UNCERTAIN^-2-see⁰-PERF¹)

Nenqa aʔ te-anu-ta-nxa-l - He says/people say that he saw Nenqa (but I don't know whether to believe it) (nenqa 3ps ABS[ANIM]^-3-UNCERTAIN^-2-see⁰-PERF¹-DUB-²)

The final evidentiality prefix denotes hypotheticality, marked with atu. This states that the event never in fact happened:

Nenqa uʔ te-atu-ta-nxa - you would've seen Nenqa/say you'd seen Nenqa (nenqa 2ps ABS[ANIM]^-3-CONTRAFACT^-2-see⁰-PERF¹)

Valency

Transitive verbs are distinguished by whether they can take this prefix or not. This is the third and final prefix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ^-1. There are three valency prefixes which may be applied to these verbs:

Transitive

The transitive prefix is null. In transitive verbs, this null prefix must be accompanied by a transitive patient:

Sesu-sa wen enxa - My sister is eating meat (sister-PERSON meat eat⁰)

Generic

Transitive verbs can take the prefix -(ʔ)u(ʔ)-, which is referred to variously as the 'generic' prefix, the 'monotransivity' prefix, and the 'null-patient' prefix. This makes the verb monotransitive or generic:

Sesu-sa uʔ-enxa - my sister is eating (something) (sister-PERSON GEN^-1-eat⁰)

The verb cannot then take a patient. The sentence *Sesu-sa wen uʔ-enxa is ungrammatical.

Reflexive

Transitive verbs can take the prefix (f)a(q), which makes them 'reflexive'. This can have reciprocal or reflexive meaning:

Sesu-sa aq-enxa - my sister is eating herself (sister-PERSON REFL^-1-eat⁰)

Sesu-f-a aq-enxa - my two sisters are eating each other (sister-DUAL-PERSON REFL^-1-eat⁰)

Aspect

All verbs carry inflection for aspect (perfective or imperfective). This is the first suffix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ¹. In monopartite verbs, this is accomplished by the addition of a suffix.

Perfective aspect

The Perfective aspect implies a single action, complete and independent of any other action and is formed by (e)nxa (the /e/ assimilates to a preceding vowel and causes lenition of /t/ to /s/ and /p/ to /f/ in preceding consonants). For example:

Sesu-sa te-ta-nxa - I saw/see my sister at one point (sister-PERSON ABS[ANIM]^-3-see⁰-PERF¹)

The perfective does not imply any kind of past tense, and can be used in the future for any distinct single action:

Sesu-sa patangqa te-ta-nxa - I will see my sister tomorrow (sister-PERSON tomorrow ABS[ANIM]^-3-see⁰-PERF¹)

Imperfective aspect

The Imperfective aspect implies continuous or repeated action. It is formed with a null morpheme in the vast majority of verbs, although some verbs take an epenthetic -e when other suffixes are not present.

Sesu-sa te-ta - I'm currently seeing my sister/I see my sister frequently (sister.TOPIC-PERSON ABS[ANIM]^-3-see⁰)

Sesu-sa pangxu-fa te-ta - I used to see my sister/I was seeing my sister last year (sister.TOPIC-PERSONAL last.year-TEMP ABS[ANIM]^-3-see⁰)

Mood

All verbs also carry inflection for mood. This is the second suffix slot, marked in glosses by a superscript ². There are four moods distinguished in Tsakxa:

Indicative

The Indicative mood describes actions that definitely have happened, will happen or are happening within the speaker's knowledge. It is marked by a null morpheme (shown here with -ø but not marked in the actual written language).

Kangqa se-ta-nxa - I saw the beast (beast ABS[INANIM]^-3-see⁰-PERF¹)

It is also used for imperatives in almost all verbs:

Bashung uʔ-kxa se-tashet-enxa! - Read the book! (book 2ps-ERG ABS[INANIM]^-3-read⁰-PERF¹)

Some verbs, however, have their own distinct imperative root:

Bashung uʔ-kxa se-sang-anxa! - Look at the book! (book 2ps-ERG ABS[INANIM]^-3-see⁰-PERF¹)

Subjunctive

The Subjunctive or Modal mood describes actions that may or may not have happened and that the speaker feels strongly about. It is marked by a suffixed -(a)s(e):

As-aʔ te-utshu-se - I hope he's dying somewhere (FOCUS-3ps ABS[ANIM]^-3-die⁰-SUBJ²)

It is also used for 'if I were' sentences:

A-su te-pesh-as(e) - if I were a rich man (FOCUS-1ps ABS[ANIM]^-3-rich⁰-SUBJ²)

Dubitative

The Dubitative mood describes actions devoid of emotional content that the speaker wishes to distance themselves from - primarily reported speech. It is also used for open questions. It is formed with the suffix -(a)l(e):

As-aʔ te-anu-pesh-ale - (FOCUS-3ps ABS[ANIM]^-3-UNCERT^-2-rich⁰-DUB²) - He's supposedly rich

Interrogative

The Interrogative is used to ask yes or no questions. It is formed with the suffix -(e)f(e):

As-uʔ u-wes-enxa-fe? - Will you eat? (2ps-TOPIC GEN^-1-eat⁰-PERF¹-INTER²)

Bipartite verbs

Bipartite verbs have twin stems and are mostly verbs of motion or auxiliaries. It is believed that, originally, all Tsakxa verbs were bipartite, and exactly which verbs fall under this classification varies by dialect (e.g. West Mountain Tsakxa wa-ak, Valley Tsakxa wak, 'go'). Bipartite verbs incorporate direct objects and locatives and take some inflection on each stem. They may take up to five affixes. For example:

Petukal anuwawa Efanakxa nak-u
		evidentiality (-1)	first stem (0)	aspect (1)	mood (2)			agreement (3)	second stem (0)	suffix (+1)
Petuka	-ø	atu-	wa	-wa	-s	Efan	-akxa	ta-	ak	-u
Saint Petersburg	-FOCUS	CONTFACT-	go	~IMPERF	-SUBJ	Ivan	-ERG	LAT[ANIM]-	go	=PERS
Were Ivan on his way to Saint Petersburg (a place we've just been discussing) (where I live or am presently) (but he isn't)

Evidentiality

Evidentiality (glossed with a superscript ^-1) is formed using exactly the same prefixes as in monopartite verbs. The prefixes attach to the first stem:

A-su anu-tas-tas-el ta-ma - (I think that) he's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC NONCERT^-1-look⁰-IMPERF¹-DUB² LOC[ANIM]³-look⁰)

A-su tas-tas-el ta-ma - (I am certain that) he's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC CERT^-1-look⁰~IMPERF¹ LAT³-look⁰)

First stem

The first stem (glossed with a superscript ⁰) is the second element of the verbal complex:

A-su anu-tas-tas ta-ma - He's looking at me (1ps-TOPIC NONCERT^-1-look⁰~IMPERF¹ LOC[ANIM]³-look⁰)

Aspect

In bipartite verbs, the perfect is formed by the bare stem, whilst the imperfect is formed by reduplication of the second syllable of the first part of the stem. Aspect is glossed with a superscript ¹.

Man tas-ø-el sa-ma? - What did you look at? (what-TOPIC look⁰~PERF¹-DUB² LOC[INANIM]³-look⁰)

Man tas-tas-el sa-ma? - What are you looking at? (what-TOPIC look⁰-IMPERF¹-DUB² LOC[INANIM]³-look⁰)

Mood

Mood (glossed with a superscript ²) is formed using exactly the same suffixes as monopartite verbs. In bipartite verbs the suffixes attach to the first stem:

Man-ø tas-tas-el sa-ma? - What are you looking at? (what-TOPIC look⁰-IMPERF¹-DUB² LOC[INANIM]³-look⁰)

As-uʔ tas-tas-as ta-ma - If I were looking at you (2ps-TOPIC look-IMPERF¹-SUBJ² LOC[INANIM]³-look⁰)

Incorporation of arguments

All arguments other than the dominant, or 'topical', argument are usually placed between the two stems (that is, the first stem follows the dominant argument directly, and the second stem takes the verb's usual position at the end of the utterance).

Mosaqan wa-f uʔ-akxa ta-ak? - Did you go to Moscow? (Moscow-TOPIC go⁰-INTER² 2ps-ERG LAT[ANIM]³-go⁰)

Not only objects, but clauses can be incorporated:

As-aʔ, te-f nxa-nxa aʔ-kxa sa? - Does he think that I cooked it? (3ps think⁰-INTER² cook-PERF¹ 1ps-ERG think⁰)

Agreement

Agreement is with the topic or focus, as in monopartite verbs. However, in bipartite verbs the agreement prefix (glossed with a ³) attaches to the second stem (the only one of the 'true affixes' to do so):

Petukal as-as-ef ta-aq? - Are you walking to Saint Petersburg? (Saint.Petersburg walk⁰~IMPERF¹-INTER²LAT[ANIM]³-walk⁰)

Second stem

The second stem (glossed with a superscript ⁰) is the second-to-last element of the verbal complex, following the agreement prefix and preceding the personal suffix:

A-su anu-tas-tas-el ta-ma - (I think that) he's looking at me (2ps-TOPIC NONCERT^-1-look⁰-IMPERF¹-DUB² LOC³-look⁰)

Irregular verbs

There are a small number of irregular verbs in Tsakxa.

Copula

In order to convey 'to be (a noun or adjective)', the noun or adjective concerned is simply treated as a verbal root. The 'subject' is always in the absolutive:

A-su te-mama - I am a person (1ps AB[ANIM]S^-3-person⁰)

A-su te-wa - I am young (1ps ABS[ANIM]^-3-young⁰)

A-su aʔ-uwa-ta te-wa-sh - I am as young as them (1ps 3ps-COM ABS[ANIM]^-3-young-COMP⁰)

To be (locative)

There is a locative copula in Tsakxa. It is defective because it can only have a locative as its focus and can only take the imperfect:

Mosaqan sewa qunxu-t-angxa ta-f - there are many pretty girls in Moscow (and I've seen them) - (Moscow girl pretty-PLU-GENER LOC[ANIM]^-3-be⁰)

The verb has three stems used for the different evidentialities, -f- (certain), -ya- (uncertain), -s (contrafactual):

Mosaqan sewa tunxa qunxu-ngxa-qa ta-ya - it's said there are many pretty girls in Moscow (Moscow girl many pretty-PAUC-DAT LOC[ANIM]^-3-be[NONCERT]⁰)

Mosaqan sewa qunxu-ngxa ta-s - there are not many pretty girls in Moscow (Moscow girl pretty-PAUC LOC[ANIM]^-3-be[CONTRAFACT]⁰)

The locative copula is used in the possessive construction, with the subject of 'to have' in English expressed with the comitative:

Sesu qunxu-ngxa Nunu-ta tunxa qa-f - Nunu has many beautiful sisters (whom I've seen with my own eyes) (sister pretty-GENERIC Nunu-COMIT many DAT[ANIM]^-3-be⁰)

To give

The verb 'to give', given by Dawkins in citation form as la, is anomalous because it can be argued to conjugate for person. The verb has three distinct stems, -la- (first person), -u- (second person), and -ra- (third person). The verb agrees with the indirect object:

Tu-sa qa-ra-nxa - it was given to my brother (brother-PERSON DAT[ANIM]^-3-give[3p]⁰-PERF¹)

Tu-sa la-nxa - it was given to me by my brother (brother-PERSON give[1p]⁰-PERF¹)

Tu-sa u-nxa - it was given to you by my brother (brother-PERSON give[2p]⁰-PERF¹)

Adverbs

Adverbs are identical to adjectives in form and usually appear just before the verbal complex:

waspa-p wen yayu unqu-yuyut - meat is being cut quickly in that tent (tent-that meat fast INESS[INANIM]^-3-cut⁰)

They may be compared:

a-su wen u-wa-ta yayu-sh nas-u yuyut - I can cut meat as quickly as you (1ps meat 2pp-COM fast-EQUAT can⁰-CONJ³ cut⁰)

Comparison with verbal complexes is identical to the process by which Tsakxa subordinates adverbial constructions:

wen u-wa-kxa aʔ-em enxa-ta yayu-ya su-kxa nas-u se-yuyut - I can cut meat faster than you eat it (meat 2pp-ERG 3ps-TOPIC eat⁰-COMIT⁶ fast-COMP 1ps-ERG ABS[INANIM]-can⁰-CONJ³ ABS[INANIM]^-3-cut⁰