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In this section, I discuss a heterogeneous collection of grammatical elements which I will call particles. All particles in Tepa are clitics; that is, they have the syntax of full words but the phonology of affixes (I will use the words <I>particle</I> and <I>clitic</I> interchangeably in the following description). I distinguish between five kinds of particles: 1) pronouns, 2) postpositions, 3) quantifiers, 4) conjunctions, and 5) modal particles.
In this section, I discuss a heterogeneous collection of grammatical elements which I will call particles. All particles in Tepa are clitics; that is, they have the syntax of full words but the phonology of affixes (I will use the words ''particle'' and ''clitic'' interchangeably in the following description). I distinguish between five kinds of particles: 1) pronouns, 2) postpositions, 3) quantifiers, 4) conjunctions, and 5) modal particles.




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(1)  =ma ‘1’
''=ma'' ‘1’
      =ku  ‘2’


The personal pronouns are used primarily as oblique objects of ditransitive predicates. When third person referents need to be mentioned, a <A HREF=“#demonstrative”>demonstrative pronoun is pressed into service.
''=ku'' ‘2’


There is a construction which corresponds in meaning roughly to the colloquial English use of the reflexive as an emphatic pronoun. In Tepa, this is done by affixing one of the argument prefixes to the demonstrative pronoun <I>ne</I>. For example, <I>wa-ne</I> means approximately ‘I (am) that (one).’
 
The personal pronouns are used primarily as oblique objects of ditransitive predicates. When third person referents need to be mentioned, a [[#Demonstrative Pronouns|demonstrative pronoun]] is pressed into service.
 
There is a construction which corresponds in meaning roughly to the colloquial English use of the reflexive as an emphatic pronoun. In Tepa, this is done by affixing one of the argument prefixes to the demonstrative pronoun ''nɨ''. For example, ''wa-nɨ'' means approximately ‘I (am) that (one).’




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(2)  =ni ‘this’
''=ni'' ‘this’
      =nu ‘that’
 
      =ne  generic
''=nu'' ‘that’
 
''=nɨ'' generic
 


The pronoun <I>=ni</I> is used for referents near the speaker, while <I>=nu</I> is used for referents which are not near the speaker. The pronoun <I>=ne</I> is used when the proximity of the referent is not known, or is not relevant. The demonstrative pronouns are also used anaphorically; that is, to track third person referents in a discourse.
The pronoun ''=ni'' is used for referents near the speaker, while ''=nu'' is used for referents which are not near the speaker. The pronoun ''=nɨ'' is used when the proximity of the referent is not known, or is not relevant. The demonstrative pronouns are also used anaphorically; that is, to track third person referents in a discourse.




===Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns===
===Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns===


The set of interrogative and indefinite pronouns is also rather small. Unlike English, one set of pronouns does both jobs in Tepa; their particular interpretation depends on the presence of the interrogative modal particle <I>su</I>. When it is present, the pronoun is understood as an interrogative pronoun, otherwise as an indefinite pronoun. The pronouns are:
The set of interrogative and indefinite pronouns is also rather small. Unlike English, one set of pronouns does both jobs in Tepa; their particular interpretation depends on the presence of the interrogative modal particle ''su''. When it is present, the pronoun is understood as an interrogative pronoun, otherwise as an indefinite pronoun. The pronouns are:
 
 
''=ttɨ'' who, what; someone, something


''=tti'' where, somewhere
''=tta'' when, sometime
''=ttu'' why


(3)  =tte  who, what; someone, something
      =tti  where, somewhere
      =tta  when, sometime
      =ttu  why


These particles contain a geminate [tt]; when they are attached to a word (noun or verb) ending in a nasal, the nasal is “overwritten” by the first half of the geminate and does not surface. When these particles are attached to a word which is bound in phase or to a monosyllabic form, the result is a ...CVVC.CV sequence; this is one of only two violations of the constraint against “superheavy” syllables in the language.
These particles contain a geminate [tt]; when they are attached to a word (noun or verb) ending in a nasal, the nasal is “overwritten” by the first half of the geminate and does not surface. When these particles are attached to a word which is bound in phase or to a monosyllabic form, the result is a ...CVVC.CV sequence; this is one of only two violations of the constraint against “superheavy” syllables in the language.
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(4)  [sureSipette]
[surɨšipɨttɨ]
      su= 0-   lesi pen  =tte
{|
      ?= 3&gt;3’- fear child =who
| su= || 0- || lɨsi || pɨn || =ttɨ
      ‘Who fears the child?’
|-
| ?= || 3>3’- || fear || child || =who
|}
‘Who fears the child?’
 
 
[surɨšittɨpɨ̃ɨ̃]
{|
| su= || 0- || lɨsi || =ttɨ || pɨn
|-
| ?= || 3>3’- || fear || =who || child
|}
‘Who does the child fear?’


(5)  [sureSittepee~]
      su= 0-    lesi =tte pen
      ?=  3&gt;3’- fear =who child
      ‘Who does the child fear?’


(6)  [na3iyeette]
[naɣiyɨɨttɨ]
      0-   naki yee =tte
{|
      3&gt;3’- eat egg =someone
| 0- || naki || yɨɨ || =ttɨ
      ‘Someone ate the egg.’
|-
| 3>3’- || eat || egg || =someone
|}
‘Someone ate the egg.’


(7)  [suna3iyeette]
      su= 0-    naki yee =tte
      ?=  3&gt;3’- eat  egg =who
      ‘Did someone eat the egg?’ or ‘Who ate the egg?’


Sentence (7) has two interpretations. The first is simply a yes/no question; while the second is a wh-question, querying a particular grammatical function (in this case, the subject). They are distinguished in Tepa by means of pitch contour; the yes/no question has on the last word a falling tone contour (a sequence of a high tone followed by a low tone) followed by a high tone on the final syllable:
[sunaɣiyɨɨttɨ]
{|
| su= || 0- || naki || yɨɨ || =ttɨ
|-
| ?= || 3>3’- || eat || egg || =who
|}
‘Did someone eat the egg?’ or ‘Who ate the egg?’




(8)         yeette
This last sentence has two interpretations. The first is simply a yes/no question; while the second is a wh-question, querying a particular grammatical function (in this case, the subject). They are distinguished in Tepa by means of pitch contour; the yes/no question has on the last word a falling tone contour (a sequence of a high tone followed by a low tone) followed by a high tone on the final syllable:
            ||  |
 
            HL  H
 
''yɨ́ɨ̀ttɨ́''
 


The wh-question has falling tone contour without the subsequent high tone on the last syllable:
The wh-question has falling tone contour without the subsequent high tone on the last syllable:




(9)        yeette
''yɨ́ɨ̀ttɨ̀''
            | \/
 
            H  L


Very often the final vowel of the wh-question is voiceless, as is the final vowel of the indefinite pronoun.
Very often the final vowel of the wh-question is voiceless, as is the final vowel of the indefinite pronoun.
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(10)  =pu in
''=pu'' in
      =ta at
 
      =ma with
''=ta'' at
      =ka on
 
      =qu  to
''=ma'' with
      =le  from, of
 
      =qea  along
''=ka'' on
      =ume  around
 
      =pte  up
''=ŋu'' to
 
''=lɨ'' from, of
 
''=ŋɨa'' along
 
''=umɨ'' around
 
''=ptɨ'' up
 


There are also two locative particles which function much like English “here” and “there”. They are:
There are also two locative particles which function much like English “here” and “there”. They are:




(11)  yi here
''yi'' here
      yu there
 
''yu'' there
 


Postpositions can be attached to these locatives to show movement or more precise location:
Postpositions can be attached to these locatives to show movement or more precise location:




(12)  [yure]         [yiqu]
{|
      yu   =le      yi   =qu
| colspan="2"| [yurɨ] || colspan="2"| [yiŋu]
      there =from     here =to
|-
      ‘from there’   ‘to here’
| yu || =lɨ || yi || =ŋu
|-
| there || =from || here || =to
|-
| colspan="2"| ‘from there’ || colspan="2"| ‘to here’
|}




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(13) [ci3iwii]
[tšiɣiwii]
      tikiwii
 
      bird:COLL:B
tikiwii
      ‘all birds’
 
bird:COLL:B
 
‘all birds’
 


“a few” is expressed by a noun phrase which is paucal in number and unbound in phase:
“a few” is expressed by a noun phrase which is paucal in number and unbound in phase:




(14)[ciDwi]
[tšiðwi]
      titwi
      bird:PAUC
      ‘a few birds’


“many” and “some” are expressed by a noun phrase which is distributive in number and unbound in phase. In addition, an overt quantifying particle is attached to the noun; for “many” the particle is <I>=nte</I>, and for “some” the particle is <I>=nka</I>:
titwi


bird:PAUC


(15) [ciwiDwinde]
‘a few birds’
      tiwitwi   =nte
 
      bird:DIST =many
 
      ‘many birds’
“many” and “some” are expressed by a noun phrase which is distributive in number and unbound in phase. In addition, an overt quantifying particle is attached to the noun; for “many” the particle is ''=ntɨ'', and for “some” the particle is ''=nka'':
 
 
[tšiwiðwindɨ]
{|
| tiwitwi || =ntɨ
|-
| bird:DIST || =many
|}
‘many birds’
 
 
[tšiwiðwiŋga]
{|
| tiwitwi || =nka
|-
| bird:DIST || =some
|}
‘some birds’


(16)  [ciwiDwiqga]
      tiwitwi  =nka
      bird:DIST =some
      ‘some birds’


Finally, to express “every”, a noun phrase which is distributive in number and bound in phase is used:
Finally, to express “every”, a noun phrase which is distributive in number and bound in phase is used:




(17) [ciwiZiwii]
[tšiwižiwii]
      tiwitiwii
 
      bird:DIST:B
tiwitiwii
      ‘every bird’
 
bird:DIST:B
 
‘every bird’
 


Note the subtle difference between “all N” and “every N”. For “all”, some predicate is applied to a set of individuals, while for “every” a predicate is applied to individuals as defined as members of a set. In common usage in Tepa these appear to be interchangeable, but they are scrupulously distinguished in formal contexts.
Note the subtle difference between “all N” and “every N”. For “all”, some predicate is applied to a set of individuals, while for “every” a predicate is applied to individuals as defined as members of a set. In common usage in Tepa these appear to be interchangeable, but they are scrupulously distinguished in formal contexts.
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The coordinating conjunctions are different from the particles discussed elsewhere in this section. The difference is that of all the particles, only the coordinating conjunctions are non-syllabic. The two coordinating conjunctions in Tepa are:
The coordinating conjunctions are different from the particles discussed elsewhere in this section. The difference is that of all the particles, only the coordinating conjunctions are non-syllabic. The two coordinating conjunctions in Tepa are:


(18)  =n ‘and’
''=n'' ‘and’
      =l ‘or’
''=l'' ‘or’
 


They are attached to every item in a list except the last as a suffix (this is the other potential source of superheavy syllables in Tepa):
They are attached to every item in a list except the last as a suffix (this is the other potential source of superheavy syllables in Tepa):




(19) [ci3wilsu3uraqgaqgi]
[tšiɣwilsuɣuraŋgaŋgi]
      tikwi     =l suku     =l ankanki
{|
      bird:COLL =or dog:COLL =or fish:COLL
| tikwi || =l || suku || =l || ankanki
      ‘birds, dogs or fish’
|-
| bird:COLL || =or || dog:COLL || =or || fish:COLL
|}
‘birds, dogs or fish’
 
 
[tɨanhiβiðɨ]
{|
| tɨa || =n || hipitɨ
|-
| sun || =and || moon
|}
‘the sun and the moon’


(20) [teanhiviDe]
      tea =n  hipite
      sun =and moon
      ‘the sun and the moon’


(Note that the words for ‘sun’ and ‘moon’ appear to be unbound in phase but are translated with the definite article.)
(Note that the words for ‘sun’ and ‘moon’ appear to be unbound in phase but are translated with the definite article.)


In addition to the conjunctions <I>=n</I> and <I>=l</I>, there is a proclitic conjunction <I>hu=</I> which appears clause-initially; its function is to link clauses together, and is discussed in the chapter on syntax under <A HREF=“tepasntx.html#coordination”>Coordination.
 
In addition to the conjunctions ''=n'' and ''=l'', there is a proclitic conjunction ''hu='' which appears clause-initially; its function is to link clauses together, and is discussed in the chapter on syntax under [[Tepa syntax#Coordination|Coordination]].




===Subordinating Conjunctions===
===Subordinating Conjunctions===


When a predicate is used to modify a noun as an adjective rather than stand alone as the sole sentential predicate, a subordinating conjunction <I>e=</I> is used:
When a predicate is used to modify a noun as an adjective rather than stand alone as the sole sentential predicate, a subordinating conjunction ''ɨ='' is used:




(21)  [ehaZici3na]
[ɨhažitšiɣna]
      e= 0- hati tikna
{|
      SS= 3- sharp tooth:COLL
| ɨ= || 0- || hati || tikna
      ‘sharp teeth’
|-
| SS= || 3- || sharp || tooth:COLL
|}
‘sharp teeth’


(22)  [ehaZineZi3inaa suu]
      e=  hati  ne- tikinaa      suu
      SS= sharp 3-  tooth:COLL:B dog
      ‘the dog’s sharp teeth’


(23)  [cinava’ehaZisuu]
[ɨhažinɨžiɣinaa suu]
      tina  -pa  e= hati suu
{|
      tooth -HAVE SS= sharp dog
| ɨ= || hati || nɨ- || tikinaa || suu
      ‘The dog has sharp teeth.’
|-
| SS= || sharp || 3- || tooth:COLL:B || dog
|}
‘the dog’s sharp teeth’


The subordinating conjunctions are dealt with more fully in the chapter on syntax under <A HREF=“tepasntx.html#subordination”>Subordination.
 
[tšinaβaʔɨhažisuu]
{|
| tina || -pa || ɨ= || hati || suu
|-
| tooth || -HAVE || SS= || sharp || dog
|}
‘The dog has sharp teeth.’
 
 
The subordinating conjunctions are dealt with more fully in the chapter on syntax under [[Tepa syntax#Subordination|Subordination]].




==Modal Particles==
==Modal Particles==


There are five modal particles; they are listed below (the indicative mode is not marked overtly):
There are five modal particles; they are listed below (indicative mode is not marked overtly):
 
 
''ha='' imperative
 
''su='' interrogative
 
''pɨ='' irrealis
 
''mu='' negative


''ti='' optative


(24)  ha=  imperative
      su=  interrogative
      pe=  irrealis
      mu=  negative
      ti=  optative


The imperative particle identifies a direct command. An imperative sentence need not always be directed at a second person; it can have jussive force when a first person agent is expressed.
The imperative particle identifies a direct command. An imperative sentence need not always be directed at a second person; it can have jussive force when a first person agent is expressed.




(25)  [ha3uDe3ayiqu]
[haɣuðɨɣayiŋu]
      ha= ku- teka yi   =qu!
{|
      != 2- move here =to
| ha= || ku- || tɨka || yi || =ŋu
      ‘Come here!’
|-
| != || 2- || move || here || =to
|}
‘Come here!’
 
 
[hawaðɨθkayuŋu]
{|
| ha= || wa- || tɨtka || yu || =ŋu
|-
| != || 1- || move:PAUC || there || =to
|}
‘Let’s go!’


(26)  [hawaDeTkayuqu]
      ha= wa- tetka    yu    =qu
      !=  1-  move:PAUC there =to
      ‘Let’s go!’


The interrogative particle identifies the clause as a question, whether a yes/no question or a wh-question.
The interrogative particle identifies the clause as a question, whether a yes/no question or a wh-question.




(27)  [suwaDeTkayuqu]
[suwaðɨθkayuŋu]
      su= wa- tetka    yu   =qu
{|
      ?= 1- move:PAUC there =to
| su= || wa- || tɨtka || yu || =ŋu
      ‘Are we going?’
|-
| ?= || 1- || move:PAUC || there || =to
|}
‘Are we going?’
 


The irrealis particle identifies a clause which the speaker knows or presumes to be untrue; it most often translates as an “if” clause.
The irrealis particle identifies a clause which the speaker knows or presumes to be untrue; it most often translates as an “if” clause.




(28)  [pewaDawiDuva]
[pɨwaðawiðuβa]
      pe= wa- tawitu -pa
{|
      IR= 1- horn   -HAVE
| pɨ= || wa- || tawitu || -pa
      ‘If I had a horn...’
|-
| IR= || 1- || horn || -HAVE
|}
‘If I had a horn...’
 


The negative particle identifies a negative clause. This particle can also negate other parts of speech.
The negative particle identifies a negative clause. This particle can also negate other parts of speech.




(29)  [muwaDawiDuva]
[muwaðawiðuβa]
      mu= wa- tawitu -pa
{|
      NEG= 1- horn   -HAVE
| mu= || wa- || tawitu || -pa
      ‘I don’t have a horn.’
|-
| NEG= || 1- || horn || -HAVE
|}
‘I don’t have a horn.’
 


The optative particle identifies a wish on the part of the speaker.
The optative particle identifies a wish on the part of the speaker.




(30)  [ciwaDawiDuva]
[tšiwaðawiðuβa]
      ti= wa- tawitu -pa
{|
      OPT= 1- horn   -HAVE
| ti= || wa- || tawitu || -pa
      ‘If only I had a horn!’
|-
| OPT= || 1- || horn || -HAVE
|}
‘If only I had a horn!’
 


==Index==
==Index==


{{Tepa Index}}
{{Tepa Index}}
[[Category: Tepa]]

Latest revision as of 08:18, 26 October 2011

In this section, I discuss a heterogeneous collection of grammatical elements which I will call particles. All particles in Tepa are clitics; that is, they have the syntax of full words but the phonology of affixes (I will use the words particle and clitic interchangeably in the following description). I distinguish between five kinds of particles: 1) pronouns, 2) postpositions, 3) quantifiers, 4) conjunctions, and 5) modal particles.


Pronouns

There are three kinds of pronouns in Tepa: 1) personal pronouns, 2) demonstrative pronouns, and 3) interrogative/indefinite pronouns.


Personal Pronouns

The personal pronouns of Tepa constitute a remarkably lean system. There are only two persons, first and second, and no distinction in number.


=ma ‘1’

=ku ‘2’


The personal pronouns are used primarily as oblique objects of ditransitive predicates. When third person referents need to be mentioned, a demonstrative pronoun is pressed into service.

There is a construction which corresponds in meaning roughly to the colloquial English use of the reflexive as an emphatic pronoun. In Tepa, this is done by affixing one of the argument prefixes to the demonstrative pronoun nɨ. For example, wa-nɨ means approximately ‘I (am) that (one).’


Demonstrative Pronouns

There are three demonstrative pronouns in Tepa distinguishing between two degrees of proximity:


=ni ‘this’

=nu ‘that’

=nɨ generic


The pronoun =ni is used for referents near the speaker, while =nu is used for referents which are not near the speaker. The pronoun =nɨ is used when the proximity of the referent is not known, or is not relevant. The demonstrative pronouns are also used anaphorically; that is, to track third person referents in a discourse.


Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

The set of interrogative and indefinite pronouns is also rather small. Unlike English, one set of pronouns does both jobs in Tepa; their particular interpretation depends on the presence of the interrogative modal particle su. When it is present, the pronoun is understood as an interrogative pronoun, otherwise as an indefinite pronoun. The pronouns are:


=ttɨ who, what; someone, something

=tti where, somewhere

=tta when, sometime

=ttu why


These particles contain a geminate [tt]; when they are attached to a word (noun or verb) ending in a nasal, the nasal is “overwritten” by the first half of the geminate and does not surface. When these particles are attached to a word which is bound in phase or to a monosyllabic form, the result is a ...CVVC.CV sequence; this is one of only two violations of the constraint against “superheavy” syllables in the language.

Some examples of their use follow. Note also that the position of the pronoun differs with its grammatical function; as a subject, it is attached to the last word in the sentence, and as a direct object it is attached to the right edge of the verb.


[surɨšipɨttɨ]

su= 0- lɨsi pɨn =ttɨ
?= 3>3’- fear child =who

‘Who fears the child?’


[surɨšittɨpɨ̃ɨ̃]

su= 0- lɨsi =ttɨ pɨn
?= 3>3’- fear =who child

‘Who does the child fear?’


[naɣiyɨɨttɨ]

0- naki yɨɨ =ttɨ
3>3’- eat egg =someone

‘Someone ate the egg.’


[sunaɣiyɨɨttɨ]

su= 0- naki yɨɨ =ttɨ
?= 3>3’- eat egg =who

‘Did someone eat the egg?’ or ‘Who ate the egg?’


This last sentence has two interpretations. The first is simply a yes/no question; while the second is a wh-question, querying a particular grammatical function (in this case, the subject). They are distinguished in Tepa by means of pitch contour; the yes/no question has on the last word a falling tone contour (a sequence of a high tone followed by a low tone) followed by a high tone on the final syllable:


yɨ́ɨ̀ttɨ́


The wh-question has falling tone contour without the subsequent high tone on the last syllable:


yɨ́ɨ̀ttɨ̀


Very often the final vowel of the wh-question is voiceless, as is the final vowel of the indefinite pronoun.


Postpositions

Postpositions are attached to the end of nouns. They serve generally to locate objects in space or time, but some have acquired more metaphorical or opaque usages. Some of the most common postpositions are:


=pu in

=ta at

=ma with

=ka on

=ŋu to

=lɨ from, of

=ŋɨa along

=umɨ around

=ptɨ up


There are also two locative particles which function much like English “here” and “there”. They are:


yi here

yu there


Postpositions can be attached to these locatives to show movement or more precise location:


[yurɨ] [yiŋu]
yu =lɨ yi =ŋu
there =from here =to
‘from there’ ‘to here’


Quantifiers

To express the kinds of quantification expressed in words like “all”, “a few”, “many”, “some” and “every”, Tepa makes use of its more articulated number system in conjunction with distinctions of phase. Thus, “all” is expressed by a noun phrase which is collective in number and bound in phase:


[tšiɣiwii]

tikiwii

bird:COLL:B

‘all birds’


“a few” is expressed by a noun phrase which is paucal in number and unbound in phase:


[tšiðwi]

titwi

bird:PAUC

‘a few birds’


“many” and “some” are expressed by a noun phrase which is distributive in number and unbound in phase. In addition, an overt quantifying particle is attached to the noun; for “many” the particle is =ntɨ, and for “some” the particle is =nka:


[tšiwiðwindɨ]

tiwitwi =ntɨ
bird:DIST =many

‘many birds’


[tšiwiðwiŋga]

tiwitwi =nka
bird:DIST =some

‘some birds’


Finally, to express “every”, a noun phrase which is distributive in number and bound in phase is used:


[tšiwižiwii]

tiwitiwii

bird:DIST:B

‘every bird’


Note the subtle difference between “all N” and “every N”. For “all”, some predicate is applied to a set of individuals, while for “every” a predicate is applied to individuals as defined as members of a set. In common usage in Tepa these appear to be interchangeable, but they are scrupulously distinguished in formal contexts.


Conjunctions

A distinction is made in Tepa between coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.


Coordinating Conjunctions

The coordinating conjunctions are different from the particles discussed elsewhere in this section. The difference is that of all the particles, only the coordinating conjunctions are non-syllabic. The two coordinating conjunctions in Tepa are:

=n ‘and’ =l ‘or’


They are attached to every item in a list except the last as a suffix (this is the other potential source of superheavy syllables in Tepa):


[tšiɣwilsuɣuraŋgaŋgi]

tikwi =l suku =l ankanki
bird:COLL =or dog:COLL =or fish:COLL

‘birds, dogs or fish’


[tɨanhiβiðɨ]

tɨa =n hipitɨ
sun =and moon

‘the sun and the moon’


(Note that the words for ‘sun’ and ‘moon’ appear to be unbound in phase but are translated with the definite article.)


In addition to the conjunctions =n and =l, there is a proclitic conjunction hu= which appears clause-initially; its function is to link clauses together, and is discussed in the chapter on syntax under Coordination.


Subordinating Conjunctions

When a predicate is used to modify a noun as an adjective rather than stand alone as the sole sentential predicate, a subordinating conjunction ɨ= is used:


[ɨhažitšiɣna]

ɨ= 0- hati tikna
SS= 3- sharp tooth:COLL

‘sharp teeth’


[ɨhažinɨžiɣinaa suu]

ɨ= hati nɨ- tikinaa suu
SS= sharp 3- tooth:COLL:B dog

‘the dog’s sharp teeth’


[tšinaβaʔɨhažisuu]

tina -pa ɨ= hati suu
tooth -HAVE SS= sharp dog

‘The dog has sharp teeth.’


The subordinating conjunctions are dealt with more fully in the chapter on syntax under Subordination.


Modal Particles

There are five modal particles; they are listed below (indicative mode is not marked overtly):


ha= imperative

su= interrogative

pɨ= irrealis

mu= negative

ti= optative


The imperative particle identifies a direct command. An imperative sentence need not always be directed at a second person; it can have jussive force when a first person agent is expressed.


[haɣuðɨɣayiŋu]

ha= ku- tɨka yi =ŋu
!= 2- move here =to

‘Come here!’


[hawaðɨθkayuŋu]

ha= wa- tɨtka yu =ŋu
!= 1- move:PAUC there =to

‘Let’s go!’


The interrogative particle identifies the clause as a question, whether a yes/no question or a wh-question.


[suwaðɨθkayuŋu]

su= wa- tɨtka yu =ŋu
?= 1- move:PAUC there =to

‘Are we going?’


The irrealis particle identifies a clause which the speaker knows or presumes to be untrue; it most often translates as an “if” clause.


[pɨwaðawiðuβa]

pɨ= wa- tawitu -pa
IR= 1- horn -HAVE

‘If I had a horn...’


The negative particle identifies a negative clause. This particle can also negate other parts of speech.


[muwaðawiðuβa]

mu= wa- tawitu -pa
NEG= 1- horn -HAVE

‘I don’t have a horn.’


The optative particle identifies a wish on the part of the speaker.


[tšiwaðawiðuβa]

ti= wa- tawitu -pa
OPT= 1- horn -HAVE

‘If only I had a horn!’


Index

  1. Introduction to Tepa
  2. Tepa Phonology
  3. Inflectional Morphology of Nouns
  4. Inflectional Morphology of Verbs
  5. Some Word Formation
  6. Particles
  7. Syntax
  8. Annotated Texts
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