Maerik grammar: Difference between revisions

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[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 05:31, 8 May 2005 (PDT)
[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 05:31, 8 May 2005 (PDT)


[[Maerik|Mærik]] was a [[Wikipedia:language isolate|language isolate]] spoken in medieval Sweden. It is preseved in a wordlist with Latin glosses and some short fairy tales preserved in a single manuscript. The spelling relies quite heavily on that of Old [[Wikipedia:Swedish language|Swedish]] and the sound structure of Mærik also seems to strongly resemble that of Old Swedish, yet Mærik is ''not'' [[Wikipedia:Language family|genetically related]] to Old Swedish or other [[Wikipedia:Germanic languages|Germanic languages]]. Mærik words and sentences didn't make sense to somebody who only knew Old Swedish, and conversely Old Swedish would not have made sense to someone who only knew Mærik, although it is probable that all speakers of Mærik had also been speakers of North Scandinavian for very many generations. Although the [[Wikipedia:Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Wikipedia:Phoneme|phonemic]] similarities indicate some kind of [[Wikipedia:Sprachbund|Sprachbund]] relationship between Mærik and Old Swedish, there are on the other hand few similarities in grammatic structure. Notably Mærik lacks any marking of definiteness and indefiniteness on nouns.
[[Maerik|Mærik]] was a [[Wikipedia:language isolate|language isolate]] spoken in medieval Sweden. It is known from a wordlist with Latin glosses and some short fairy tales preserved in a single manuscript. The spelling relies quite heavily on that of Old [[Wikipedia:Swedish language|Swedish]] and the sound structure of Mærik also seems to strongly resemble that of Old Swedish, yet Mærik is ''not'' [[Wikipedia:Language family|genetically related]] to Old Swedish or other [[Wikipedia:Germanic languages|Germanic languages]]. Mærik words and sentences didn't make sense to somebody who only knew Old Swedish, and conversely Old Swedish would not have made sense to someone who only knew Mærik, although it is probable that all speakers of Mærik had also been speakers of North Scandinavian for very many generations. Although the [[Wikipedia:Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Wikipedia:Phoneme|phonemic]] similarities indicate some kind of [[Wikipedia:Sprachbund|Sprachbund]] relationship between Mærik and Old Swedish, there are on the other hand few similarities in vocabulary or grammatic structure.


==The name of the language==
==The name of the language==


''' Mærik''' or '''mæriik''' is actually the genitive of the first person plural exlusive pronoun. Speakers of North Germanic mistook the phrase '''mærik skaw''' as parallelling their own '''dönsk tunga'''. Probably they didn't grasp that there were ''two'' first person plural pronouns in '''Mærik Skaw'''.  
''' Mærik''' or '''mæriik''' is actually the genitive of the first person plural exlusive pronoun. Speakers of North Germanic mistook the phrase '''mærik skaw''' as parallelling their own '''dansk tunga'''. Probably they didn't grasp that there were ''two'' first person plural pronouns in '''Mærik Skaw'''.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 14: Line 14:
===Vowels===
===Vowels===


{| border=0 cellspacing=5
{| cellspacing="5" style="border: 1px #aaa solid"
!Front unrounded||Front rounded||Back unrounded||||Back rounded
!Front unrounded||Front rounded||Back unrounded||||Back rounded
|-
|-
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|}
|}


The status of '''u''' and '''w''' relative each other is not clarified. Possibly there is a single /u/ which is spelled '''w''' when long. Against this speaks the nonce occurrence of a '''ww''' spelling in '''nwwtlo''' 'ludere'.
====Quantity====
 
Doubled vowels almost certainly represent long vowels. The status of '''u''' and '''w''' relative each other is not clarified. Possibly there is a single /u/ which is spelled '''w''' when long. Against this speaks the nonce occurrence of a '''ww''' spelling in '''nwwtlo''' 'ludere'. The other possibility is that there is one /u/ written '''w''' and one /ʉ/ written '''u/v''', and that the spelling normally fails to mark quantity for these phonemes.
 
It is also likely that stressed single-written vowels in open syllables are long as well.
 
Long ''i'' /i:/ is usually spelled '''ij''' rather than '''ii'''.
 
====Diphthongs====
 
Some diphthongs seem to be spelled with an "extra" following vowel, probably because Old Swedish lacked diphthongs of this type:
*'''browom''' phonologically /browm/,
*'''brøwegha''' phonologically {{IPA|/brøwɣa/ or /brøjɣa/ [brøɥɣa]}},
*'''gawana''' phonologically {{IPA|/gawna/}},
*'''jæwelia''' phonologically {{IPA|/jæwlja/ [jæɥlʲa]}},
*'''øwæmn''' phonologically {{IPA|/øwm/ or /øjm/ [øɥm]}},
*'''hæwey''' may be a spelling for {{IPA|/hæw/ [hæɥ]}},
*'''trøyel''' is probably {{IPA|/trøjl/ or /trøwl/ [trøɥl]}},
*'''øywe''' is probably {{IPA|/øje/ or /øwe/ [øɥe]}}.
*'''reyit''' is probably {{IPA|/rɛjt/}}.


====Quantity====
====Umlaut====


Tthe status of geminate vowel spellings is doubtful.
There is i-umlaut caused by a following theme vowel '''*-i-''' which may be lost or preserved as '''-e-''', sometimes also spelled '''-i-'''.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===


{| border=0 cellspacing=5
{| cellspacing="5" style="border: 1px #aaa solid"
!||Labial||Dental||(Palatal)||Velar||(Labiovelar)||Glottal
!||Labial||Dental||(Palatal)||Velar||(Labiovelar)||Glottal
|-
|-
|Voiceless stops||p||t||(ki [kʲ])||k||(qw [kʷ/kw])||  
|'''Voiceless stops'''||''p''||''t''||(''ki'' {{IPA|[kʲ]}})||''k''||(''qw'' {{IPA|[kʷ/kw]}})||  
|-
|-
|Voiced stops||b||d||(gi [gʲ])||g||(gw [gʷ/gw])||  
|'''Voiced stops'''||''b''||''d''||(''gi'' {{IPA|[gʲ]}})||''g''||(''gw'' {{IPA|[gʷ/gw]}})||  
|-
|-
|Nasals||m||n||(ni [nʲ])||(ng [ŋ])||(ngw [ŋʷ/ŋw])||  
|'''Nasals'''||''m''||''n''||(''ni'' {{IPA|[nʲ]}})||(''ng'' {{IPA|[ŋ]}})||(''ngw'' {{IPA|[ŋʷ/ŋw]}})||  
|-
|-
|Voiceless fricatives||f||(th [θ])||(hi [ç])||(ch [x])||(hw [ʍ])||h
|'''Voiceless fricatives'''||''f''||(''th'' {{IPA|, tθ]}})||(''hi'' {{IPA|[ç]}})||(''ch'' {{IPA|[x, kx]}})||(''hw'' {{IPA|[ʍ]}})||''h''
|-
|-
|Voiced fricatives||v/u/ffu [v]||dh [ð]||i [j]||gh [ɣ]||w||  
|'''Voiced fricatives'''||''v/u/ffu'' {{IPA|[v]}}||''dh'' {{IPA|[ð]}}||''i'' {{IPA|[j]}}||''gh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}}||''w''||  
|-
|-
|Sibilant|| ||s||(si/ski [sʲ/ʃ])||||||
|'''Sibilants'''|| ||''s''||(''si/ski'' {{IPA|[sʲ/ʃ]}})||||||
|-
|-
|Lateral|| ||l||||||||
|'''Lateral'''|| ||''l''||||||||
|-
|-
|Trill|| ||r||||||||
|'''Trill'''|| ||''r''||||||||
|}
|}
The letter '''z''' spells {{IPA|/ts/}} arising from underlying {{IPA|//ts//, //ds// or //ðs//}}, and similarly '''x''' spells {{IPA|/ks/}} arising from underlying {{IPA|//ks//, //gs// or //ɣs//}}.


It is not clear whether all these spellings represent distinct phonemes or whether they do so in all positions.
It is not clear whether all these spellings represent distinct phonemes or whether they do so in all positions.


The status of palatal(ized) and labiovelar sounds as phonemes or clusters also remains to be determined. Contemporary Old Swedish was in the process of developing palatal phonemes through palatalization of clusters ending in /j/ and of velars before front vowels. In contemporary Old Swedish /sj/ and /sk/ before /j/ and front vowels were probably in the process of developing into /ʃ/. If the same was true of Mærik cannot be determined. The nonce appearance of '''sch''' in '''schee''' 'adferre' is hardly decisive.
===Unresolved issues in the phonology===


The status of /w/ vs /v/ is also to be determined. The many cases of '''w''' between vowels as opposed to '''ffu''' between vowels (e.g. '''priffua''' 'consolare') suggest that /w/ was indeed a separate phoneme and more widespread than the [w] of Old Swedish.
The status of palatal(ized) and labiovelar sounds as phonemes or clusters also remains to be determined. Contemporary Old Swedish was in the process of developing palatal phonemes through palatalization of clusters ending in {{IPA|/j/}} and of velars before front vowels. In contemporary Old Swedish {{IPA|/sj/}} and {{IPA|/sk/}} before {{IPA|/j/}} and front vowels were probably in the process of developing into {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. If the same was true of Mærik cannot be determined. The nonce appearance of '''sch''' in '''schee''' 'adferre' is hardly decisive.


At the same time inherited /kw/ and /gw/ were probably not monophonemic any more in Old Swedish, while [w] had become an allophone of /v/. As /w/ was probably still a phoneme in Mærik it may be that '''qw''' and '''gw''' in spite of their low frequency should be analyzed similarly.
The status of {{IPA|/w/ vs /v/}} is also to be determined. The many cases of '''w''' between vowels as opposed to '''ffu''' between vowels (e.g. '''priffua''' 'consolare') suggest that {{IPA|/w/}} was indeed a separate phoneme and more widespread than the [w] of Old Swedish. It is therefore assumed that '''w''' is {{IPA|/w/}} while
initial '''v''' before vowels and '''ffu''' between vowels is {{IPA|/v/}}.  There are even two occurrences of ''initial'' '''ffu''' before vowels, viz. '''fuaa''' 'wash clothes' and '''ffuea''' 'clear land'.


The letter '''z''' spells /ts/.
At the same time inherited {{IPA|/kʷ/ and /gʷ/}} were probably not monophonemic any more in Old Swedish, while {{IPA|[w]}} had become an allophone of {{IPA|/v/}}. As {{IPA|/w/}} was probably still a phoneme in Mærik it may be that '''qw''' and '''gw''' in spite of their low frequency should be analyzed similarly.
 
There is i-umlaut caused by a following theme vowel '''-i-''' which may be lost or preserved as '''-e-''', sometimes also spelled '''-i-'''.


===Sandhi allophones===
===Sandhi allophones===


The phonemic status of '''th ''' and '''ch ''' is not fully determined. It seems as if '''th ''' always represents underlying phonemic /tð/ and phonetically is [tθ], and likewise '''ch''' represents phonemic /kɣ/ and phonetic [kx]. Thus in Mærik [x] and [θ] only occur as assimilation of /ɣ/ or /ð/ to a neighboring voiceless [[obstruent]]. On the other hand underlying //ðð// and //ɣɣ// surface as /dd/ and /gg/, while '''ffu''' probably spells ''ungeminated'' voiced /v/ in complementary distribution with geminated voiceless /ff/ as in Old Swedish.
The phonemic status of '''th ''' and '''ch ''' is not fully determined. It seems as if '''th ''' between voiced sounds, or word finally after a voiced sound, always represents underlying phonemic {{IPA|/tð/}} and phonetically is {{IPA|[tθ]}}, and likewise '''ch''' between voiced sounds, or word finally after a voiced sound, represents phonemic {{IPA|/kɣ/}} and phonetic {{IPA|[kx]}}. Thus in Mærik {{IPA|[x] and [θ]}} only occur as assimilation of {{IPA|/ɣ/ or /ð/}} to a neighboring voiceless [[Wikipedia:obstruent|obstruent]]. On the other hand underlying {{IPA|//ðð// {and //ɣɣ//}} surface as {{IPA|/dd/ and /gg/}}, while '''ffu''' probably spells ''ungeminated'' voiced {{IPA|/v/}} in complementary distribution with geminated voiceless {{IPA|/ff/}} as in Old Swedish.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
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Case endings are as follows:
Case endings are as follows:


{| border=0 cellspacing=5
{| cellspacing="5" style="border: 1px #aaa solid"
!||Modern name||Marker||English translation||Name in the manuscript
!||Modern name||Marker||English translation||Name in the manuscript
|-
|-
|1||Nominative/Vocative:||'''-0''' (zero)||(1) ||''nominativus vel vocativus''
|1||Nominative/Vocative:||'''-0''' (zero)||(subject) ||''nominativus vel vocativus''
|-
|-
|2||Accusative:||'''-dh'''||(2)||''accusativus''
|2||Accusative:||'''-dh'''||(direct object)||''accusativus''
|-
|-
|3||Dative:||'''-s'''||'for'||''dativus''
|3||Dative:||'''-s'''||'for'||''dativus''
Line 87: Line 107:
|5||Ablative:||'''-r'''||'from'/'out of'||''ablativus''
|5||Ablative:||'''-r'''||'from'/'out of'||''ablativus''
|-
|-
|6||Instrumental:||'''-gh'''||'with'||''ablativus instrumenti ''
|6||Instrumental:||'''-gh'''||'with'||''ablativus instrumenti vel comitativus''
''vel comitativus''
|-
|-
|7||Locative:||'''-m'''||'at'/'in'||''ablativus loci''
|7||Locative:||'''-m'''||'at'/'in'||''ablativus loci''
Line 95: Line 114:
|}
|}


1 The nominative marks the subject of the sentence.
The nominative marks the subject of the sentence.
2 The accusative marks the direct object.
 
The accusative marks the direct object.


Between these endings and the stem a theme vowel '''-e-''' or '''-o-''', often appears. Variant spellings are '''-i-''' and '''-u/w-''' respectively. With the allative the front alternant is '''-ei/-ij/-i''' and the back alternant '''-oi/-ui/-wj'''.
Between these endings and the stem a theme vowel '''-e-''' or '''-o-''', sometimes appears. Variant spellings are '''-i-''' and '''-u/w-''' respectively. With the allative the front alternant is '''-ei/-ij/-i''' and the back alternant '''-oi/-ui/-wj'''.


====Suffixaufnahme====
====Suffixaufnahme====


Mærik has [[Wikipedia:Suffixaufnahme|Suffixaufnahme]] or "case stacking", i.e. a noun carrying a genitive ending may take a further grammatical or local case ending, e.g. '''dølk''' 'the farmer's', '''dølks''' or '''dølx''' 'for the farmer's' (dative of genitive). The usual sandhi phenomena apply, such as ablative '''dølkær''' 'from the farmer's', accusative '''dølkth'''. Special note should be taken of the frequent instrumental genitives in '''-ch''', which suggest [kx] as a sandhi allophonefor /kɣ/: '''dølch''' 'by the farmer's', '''hathfach''' [haθfakx] /haðfakɣ/ 'by the horse's'.
Mærik has [[Wikipedia:Suffixaufnahme|Suffixaufnahme]] or "case stacking", i.e. a noun carrying a genitive ending may take a further grammatical or local case ending, e.g. '''dølk''' 'the farmer's', '''dølks''' or '''dølx''' 'for the farmer's' (dative of genitive). The usual sandhi phenomena apply, such as ablative '''dølkær''' 'from the farmer's', accusative '''dølkth'''. Special note should be taken of the frequent instrumental genitives in '''-ch''', which suggest {{IPA|[kx]}} as a sandhi allophone for {{IPA|/kɣ/}}: '''dølch''' 'by the farmer's', '''hathfach''' {{IPA|[haθfakx] /haðfakɣ/}} 'by the horse's'.


The plural morpheme is '''-n'''. It appears written most often as '''-in''' and '''-un''' respectively, more rarely '''-en''' or '''-on/-wn'''. To these plural terminations the same case endings are added as follows:
====Plural====


#Nominative: '''-n'''
The plural morpheme is '''-n'''. It appears written most often as '''-in''' and '''-un''' respectively, more rarely '''-en''' or '''-on/-wn'''. To these plural terminations the same case endings as in the singular are added as follows:


#Accusative: '''-nd'''
{| cellspacing="5" style="border: 1px #aaa solid"
|1||Nominative: || '''-n'''
|-
|2||Accusative: || '''-nd'''
|-
|3||Dative: || '''-ns/-nz'''
|-
|4||Genitive: || '''-nk'''
|-
|5||Ablative: || '''-nnær'''
|-
|6||Instrumental: || '''-ng'''
|-
|7||Locative: || '''-num'''
|-
|8||Allative: || '''-ni'''
|}


#Dative: '''-ns/-nz'''
Note that in combining with the plural marker '''-n-''' the endings undergo some sandhi changes: the accusative '''-dh''' and the instrumental '''-gh''' become voiced stops. The dative has an optional epenthetic [t] (/nts/ written '''-nz''') and the ablative and locative receive [[Wikipedia:Svarabhakti|svarabhakti vowels]]. It is not clear whether the spelling '''-ni''' in the allative plural represents {{IPA|/ni/ or /nj/}}, since the spelling is deficient.


#Genitive: '''-nk'''
In ''Suffixaufnahme'' where the second ending takes the plural an [[Wikipedia:Epenthesis|epenthetic]] '''a''' vowel is inserted, e.g. '''vantkanz skonz''' 'for the men of the village'.


#Ablative: '''-nnær'''
====Adjectives====


#Instrumental: '''-ng'''
Adjectives inflect for case and number in congruence with their nouns, e.g. '''verghar trækker''' "From a big house", '''hughand skond''' "poor men (acc.)".


#Locative: '''-num'''
Sometimes the same word functions as an adjective and as a noun for the quality denoted by the adjective.


#Allative: '''-ni'''
===Adverbs===


Note that in combining with the plural marker '''-n-''' the endings undergo some sandhi changes: the accusative '''-dh''' and the instrumental '''-gh''' become voiced stops. The dative has an optional epenthetic [t] (/nts/ written '''*-nz''') and the ablative and locative receive svarabhakti vowels.
Most derived adverbs and some primary end in '''-m''' (with theme vowel). This formant is observed to coincide with the locative ending - probably not a coincidence!


In ''Suffixaufnahme'' where the second ending takes the plural an epenthetic '''a''' vowel, e.g. '''vantkanz skonz''' 'for the men of the village'.
===Pronouns===
 
Pronouns generally take adjectival inflection, i.e. with the plural ending '''-an'''
 
====Personal pronouns====
There are distinct inclusive and exclusive forms in first person plural.
 
'''wæll: ''' 'me - I'
'''wællk: ''' 'my/ mine'


====Adjectives====
'''ton: ''' 'you sg. (thou)'
'''tonk: ''' 'your(s) (thy/thine)'


Adjectives mostly have a stem ending in the morpheme '''-t'''. This was probably originally a denominal and deverbal adjective formant which relatively lately spread to other adjectives. Adjectives derived from nouns most often do not show the theme-vowel before '''-t''', while adjectives in '''-at/- it/-ot/-ut''' derived from verbs function as past/passive participles. There are also present/active participles in '''- rt'''.
'''ro: ''' 'he'
'''rook: ''' 'his'


Case and number endings are added to the adjectival stem either directly or with the connecting vowel '''-a-'''.
'''ni: ''' 'she'
'''niik: ''' 'her(s)'


Adjectives inflect for case and number in congruence with their nouns, e.g. '''verghtar trækker''' "From a big house", '''hughtand skond''' "poor men (acc.)".
'''edd:''' 'it'
'''ettk/etk:''' 'its'


Are there any deadjectival nouns? The normal occurrence seems to be a qualitative noun with a corresponding derived adjective.
'''foott: ''' 'we incl.' ('I and you' or 'we and you')
'''foottuk: ''' 'our(s) incl.' ('Mine and yours' or 'Ours and yours')


NB! Should constituent order be ergative. Is this an areal feature of Old European?
'''mær: ''' 'we excl.' (We but not you)
'''mærik: ''' 'our(s) excl.' (Ours but not yours)


===Adverbs===
'''han: ''' 'you pl.'
'''hank: ''' 'your(s) pl.'


Most derived adverbs and some primary end in '''-m''' (with theme vowel). This formant is observed to coincide with the locative ending - probably not a coincidence!
'''se: ''' 'they'
'''seek: ''' 'their(s)'


===Pronouns===
====Demonstrative pronouns====
'''ordh: ''' 'this', pl. '''ordhan''' 'these' (Lat. ''hic'')


====Personal pronouns====
'''ann: ''' that (nearby)' pl. '''annan''' 'those' (Lat. ''iste'')
There are distinct inclusive and exclusive forms in first person plural.


'''wæll: '''me - I
'''edd: ''' 'that (far)' pl. '''eddan''' 'those' (Lat. ''ille'')
'''wællk: '''my/ mine


'''ton: '''you sg. (thou)
'''tonk: '''your(s) (thy/thine)


'''ro: '''he
===== The enclitic demonstrative pronoun/definite article =====
'''rook: '''his


'''ni: '''she
The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitically postposed to a noun, in which case their meaning is similar to a definite article.  Both the noun and the "article" inflect for case.
'''niik: '''her(s)


'''foott: '''we incl.
{| cellspacing="5" style="border: 1px #aaa solid"
'''foottuk: '''our(s) incl.
|+ ''The enclitic demonstratives/article demonstrated on the noun ''luk'' 'child' ''
| || '''-ordh''' || '''-ann''' || '''-edd'''
|-
| ''Singular''
|-
| ''Nom.:'' || '''lukordh''' || '''lukan''' || '''luked''' || 'the child' (subject)
|-
| ''Acc.:'' || '''lukthord''' || '''lukthand''' || '''lukthed''' || 'the child' (direct object)
|-
| ''Dat.:'' || '''luxorz''' || '''luxanz''' || '''luxez''' || 'for the child'
|-
| ''Gen.:'' || '''lukkorthk''' || '''lukkank''' || '''lukketk''' || 'of the child'
|-
| ''Abl.:'' || '''lukrordhær''' || '''lukrannær''' || '''lukreddær''' || 'from the child'
|-
| ''Instr.:'' || '''luchordhgh''' || '''luchang''' || '''luchedg''' || 'with the child'
|-
| ''Loc.:'' || '''lukmordhum''' || '''lukmannum''' || '''lukmeddum''' || 'at/in the child'
|-
| ''All.:'' || '''lukiørdhi''' || '''lukiænni''' || '''lukieddi''' || 'to/into the child'
|-
| ''Plural''
|-
| ''Nom.:'' || '''lukunordhan''' || '''lukunan''' || '''lukuneddan''' || 'the children' (subject)
|-
| ''Acc.:'' || '''lukundordhan''' || '''lukundand''' || '''lukundeddan''' || 'the children' (direct object)
|-
| ''Dat.:'' || '''lukunzordhanz''' || '''lukunzanz''' || '''lukunzeddanz''' || 'for the children'
|-
| ''Gen.:'' || '''lukankordhank''' || '''lukunkank''' || '''lukunketank''' || 'of the children'
|-
| ''Abl.:'' || '''lukunærordhanær''' || '''lukunærannær''' || '''lukunæreddanær''' || 'from the children'
|-
| ''Instr.:'' || '''lukungordhang''' || '''lukungang''' || '''lukungeddang''' || 'with the children'
|-
| ''Loc.:'' || '''lukumordhanum''' || '''lukumannum''' || '''lukumeddanum''' || 'at/in the children'
|-
| ''All.:'' || '''lukuniørdhani''' || '''lukuniænni''' || '''lukunieddani''' || 'to/into the children'
|}


'''mær: '''we excl.
Note the frequent [[Wikipedia:Haplology|haplology]] in the plural of the '''-ann''' forms!  In practice it means that the plural marker of the '''-ann''' article disappears entirely, so that only the noun carries plural marking.  The locative plural is especially treacherous.
'''mærik: '''our(s) excl.


'''han: '''you pl.
It should be observed that the '''-ann''' forms are often used where the context would properly call for the '''-ordh''' or '''-edd''' forms.
'''hank: '''your(s) pl.


'''se: '''they
Where an adjective precedes the noun the preposed demonstrative is used: '''edd grøtth lukth''' 'that small child (acc.)'.
'''seek: '''their(s)


====Demonstrative pronouns====
'''ordh: '''this
'''ann: '''that (nearby)
'''edd: '''that (far)
====Interrogative pronouns====
====Interrogative pronouns====
'''fiørn: '''who?
'''fiørn: ''' 'who?' pl. '''fiørnan'''
'''fann: '''what?
 
'''fwnn: '''how much/many?
'''fann: ''' 'what?' pl. '''fannan'''
'''følk: '''which?
 
'''faat: '''when?
'''fwnn: ''' 'how much?' pl. '''fwnnan''' 'how many?'
'''fedd: '''where?
 
'''fwdh: '''why?
'''følk: ''' 'which?' pl. '''følkian'''
 
'''faat: ''' 'when?'
 
'''fedd: ''' 'where?'
 
'''fwdh: ''' 'why?'


====Relative pronouns====
====Relative pronouns====


'''iørn: '''who
'''iørn: ''' 'who' pl. '''iørnan'''
'''øll: '''which
 
'''øll: ''' 'which' pl. '''øllian'''
 
'''aat: '''when
'''aat: '''when
'''wdh: '''therefore
'''wdh: '''therefore


====Other pronouns====
====Other pronouns====


'''vex: '''self (reflexive)
'''vek: ''' 'self' (reflexive -- note genitive '''veck''' and dative '''vex'''!)
:pl. '''vekan''' 'selves'


'''hyy: '''each other
'''hyyn: ''' 'each other' (pl.)


'''dødhzsk: '''respectively
'''dødhzsk: ''' 'respectively' (formally a genitive singular)


'''sakt: '''thing
'''sakt: ''' 'something, a thing' pl. '''saktan'''


'''gøm: '''indefinite
'''gøm: ''' 'you, one, they (indefinite)' pl. '''gømian'''


'''siæn: '''any
'''siæn: ''' 'any'  pl. '''siænan'''
 
'''hwalt: ''' 'same'


===Verbs===
===Verbs===


The present ends in '''-e/-o/-a''' derived from earlier long theme vowels '''*-ē, *-ō, *-ā'''.
The present ends in '''-e/-o/-a''', probably derived from earlier long theme vowels ''*-ē, *-ō, *-ā''.


In not a few verbs the present marker contains a '''t''' (*-te/-to/-ta)''', most notably *olto''' 'be' and '''ganta''' 'not be'. Sometimes an intrusive '''-p-''' comes between the '''-t-''' present formant and a root ending in '''-m''' e.g. '''rampta''' 'know a person', with the past tense '''ramma'''.
In not a few verbs the present marker contains a '''t''' (''*-tē, *-tō, *-''), most notably '''olto''' 'there is' and '''ganta''' 'not be'. Sometimes an intrusive '''-p-''' comes between the '''-t-''' present formant and a root ending in '''-m''' e.g. '''rampta''' 'know a person', with the past tense '''ramma'''.


The infinitive or gerund, the imperative and the supine all consist in the bare stem, and can be distinguished only by their function, except that the infinitive/gerund can be inflectedlike a noun and the imperative often but not always is followed by a pronoun in the nominative/vocative.
The infinitive or gerund, the imperative and the supine all consist in the bare stem, and can be distinguished only by their function, except that the infinitive/gerund can be inflected like a noun and the imperative often but not always is followed by a pronoun in the nominative/vocative.


The past tense formant is '''-ma/-mo'''.
The past tense formant is '''-ma/-mo'''.


Where there is a '''-t-''' in the present tense formant this '''-t-''' disappears in the past tense: thus from the present '''olto''' there is the past '''olmo''', and from the present '''kræfte''' 'departs' there is the past '''kraffma''' (Note also the lack of i-umlaut in the past tense!). N.B. '''gamma''', the past of '''ganta''' (usually spelled '''gam¯a'''), and '''swmmo''' (also '''sunmo''') 'covered' from '''swnto'''. However sometimes the '''-t-''' is part of the root, e.g. '''lita''' 'hear', p.t. '''lijtma'''.
Where there is a '''-t-''' in the present tense formant this '''-t-''' disappears in the past tense: thus from the present '''olto''' there is the past '''olmo''', and from the present '''kræfte''' 'departs' there is the past '''kraffma''' (Note also the lack of i-umlaut in the past tense!). N.B. '''gamma''', the past of '''ganta''' (usually spelled '''gam̄a'''), and '''swmmo''' (also '''sunmo''') 'covered' from '''swnto'''. However sometimes the '''-t-''' is part of the root, e.g. '''lita''' 'hear', p.t. '''lijtma'''.


The subjunctive formant is '''-sa/-so'''.
The subjunctive formant is '''-sa/-so'''.
Line 221: Line 311:
These two are fused as '''-sma/-smo''' in past subjunctive.
These two are fused as '''-sma/-smo''' in past subjunctive.


Note '''kræftza''' 'would depart' with the present marker '''-t-''' against '''kræfsma''' 'would have departed' without it.
Note that the subjunctive marker '''s''' goes after the present tense marker '''t''' if that is present, e.g. '''kræftza''' 'would depart', but before the past tense marker '''ma''', as in '''kræfsma''' 'would have departed'.


====Person inflection on verbs====
====Person inflection on verbs====


Singular  
{| cellspacing="5" style="border: 1px #aaa solid"
 
|''Singular''
1. '''-w''' ('''-ew/-w/-aw''')
|-
 
| 1. || '''-wl/-wVl/-l''' ('''-aw(a)l/-ew(e)l/-ol''')|| 'I'
2. '''-ck'''
|-
 
| 2. || '''-ck''' || 'you'(sg.), 'thou'
3. -0 (zero)
|-
 
| 3. || -(zero)
Plural  
|-
 
|''Plural''
1. excl. '''-ff'''
|-
 
| 1. excl. || '''-ff''' || 'we'
1. incl. '''-rr'''
|-
 
| 1. incl. || '''-rr''' || 'you and I', 'we and you'
2. '''-n'''
|-
 
| 2. || '''-n''' || 'you'(pl.)
3. '''-ss'''
|-
|3. || '''-ss''' || 'they'
|}


====Participles====
====Participles====
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There are active participles in '''-rt''' and passive participles in '''-t''' from both the present and past stems:  
There are active participles in '''-rt''' and passive participles in '''-t''' from both the present and past stems:  


Present active: '''lekart''' "speaking"
{| cellspacing="5" style="border: 1px #aaa solid"
| Present active: || '''lekart''' || "speaking"
Present passive: '''lekat''' "being spoken"
|-
| Present passive: || '''lekat''' || "being spoken"
Past active: '''lekmart''' "been spoken"
|-
| Past active: || '''leekmart''' || "been speaking"
Past passive: '''lekmat''' "spoken"
|-
| Past passive: || '''leekmat''' || "spoken"
There are some compound tenses and moods using participles. The most important is the passive formed with '''olta''' 'be' and the present passive participle:
|}
 
=====Compound tenses=====
There are some compound tenses and moods using participles. The most important is the passive formed with '''fere''' 'be' and the present passive participle:


'''Oltaw lekat''' 'I am spoken'.
'''Ferewæl lekat''' 'I am spoken'.


There is also a perfect and a pluperfect using '''olta''' and the past active participle:
There is also a perfect and a pluperfect using '''fere''' and the past active participle:


'''Oltaw lekmart''' 'I have spoken',
'''Ferewæl leekmart''' 'I have spoken',


'''Olmaw lekmart''' 'I had spoken'.
'''Fermawal leekmart''' 'I had spoken'.


Lastly there is a future using '''boko''' 'become' and the present active participle:
Lastly there is a future using '''boko''' 'become' and the present active participle:


'''Bokow lekart''' 'I will/shall/am going to speak'.
'''Bokwol lekart''' 'I will/shall/am going to speak'.


These compound tenses are not used nearly as often as the corresponding forms in English and other modern Germanic languages. Thus the simple present is usually found for future reference and the simple past forperfect and pluperfect reference.
These compound tenses are not used nearly as often as the corresponding forms in English and other modern Germanic languages. Thus the simple present is usually found for future reference and the simple past for perfect and pluperfect reference.


====Negation====
====Negation====
Line 288: Line 383:


The main constituent order is VSO.
The main constituent order is VSO.
Mærik is a ''[[Wikipedia:Pro-drop_language|pro-drop language]]''.  As Mærik is concerned this means that subject pronouns in the nominative are normally left out since the subject is sufficiently expressed by the person ending on the verb, but object pronouns have to be expressed since the object is not expressed in the verb.
There are many idioms involving in particular the locative and the dative where other languages would use nominative or accusative.


Verbs of perception and experiencing take the experiencer in the dative.
Verbs of perception and experiencing take the experiencer in the dative.
The genitive can be used in partitive function.
Many adverbs are formally locatives of nouns or adjectives and constructed accordingly.
[[Category:Maerik]]

Latest revision as of 06:07, 2 July 2009

Mærik grammar outline

BPJ 05:31, 8 May 2005 (PDT)

Mærik was a language isolate spoken in medieval Sweden. It is known from a wordlist with Latin glosses and some short fairy tales preserved in a single manuscript. The spelling relies quite heavily on that of Old Swedish and the sound structure of Mærik also seems to strongly resemble that of Old Swedish, yet Mærik is not genetically related to Old Swedish or other Germanic languages. Mærik words and sentences didn't make sense to somebody who only knew Old Swedish, and conversely Old Swedish would not have made sense to someone who only knew Mærik, although it is probable that all speakers of Mærik had also been speakers of North Scandinavian for very many generations. Although the phonetic and phonemic similarities indicate some kind of Sprachbund relationship between Mærik and Old Swedish, there are on the other hand few similarities in vocabulary or grammatic structure.

The name of the language

Mærik or mæriik is actually the genitive of the first person plural exlusive pronoun. Speakers of North Germanic mistook the phrase mærik skaw as parallelling their own dansk tunga. Probably they didn't grasp that there were two first person plural pronouns in Mærik Skaw.

Phonology

Mærik phonology is very much similar to Old Swedish phonology, due to the Sprachbund relationship between the languages.

Vowels

Front unrounded Front rounded Back unrounded Back rounded
i y u/v w
e ø o
æ a

Quantity

Doubled vowels almost certainly represent long vowels. The status of u and w relative each other is not clarified. Possibly there is a single /u/ which is spelled w when long. Against this speaks the nonce occurrence of a ww spelling in nwwtlo 'ludere'. The other possibility is that there is one /u/ written w and one /ʉ/ written u/v, and that the spelling normally fails to mark quantity for these phonemes.

It is also likely that stressed single-written vowels in open syllables are long as well.

Long i /i:/ is usually spelled ij rather than ii.

Diphthongs

Some diphthongs seem to be spelled with an "extra" following vowel, probably because Old Swedish lacked diphthongs of this type:

  • browom phonologically /browm/,
  • brøwegha phonologically /brøwɣa/ or /brøjɣa/ [brøɥɣa],
  • gawana phonologically /gawna/,
  • jæwelia phonologically /jæwlja/ [jæɥlʲa],
  • øwæmn phonologically /øwm/ or /øjm/ [øɥm],
  • hæwey may be a spelling for /hæw/ [hæɥ],
  • trøyel is probably /trøjl/ or /trøwl/ [trøɥl],
  • øywe is probably /øje/ or /øwe/ [øɥe].
  • reyit is probably /rɛjt/.

Umlaut

There is i-umlaut caused by a following theme vowel *-i- which may be lost or preserved as -e-, sometimes also spelled -i-.

Consonants

Labial Dental (Palatal) Velar (Labiovelar) Glottal
Voiceless stops p t (ki [kʲ]) k (qw [kʷ/kw])
Voiced stops b d (gi [gʲ]) g (gw [gʷ/gw])
Nasals m n (ni [nʲ]) (ng [ŋ]) (ngw [ŋʷ/ŋw])
Voiceless fricatives f (th [θ, tθ]) (hi [ç]) (ch [x, kx]) (hw [ʍ]) h
Voiced fricatives v/u/ffu [v] dh [ð] i [j] gh [ɣ] w
Sibilants s (si/ski [sʲ/ʃ])
Lateral l
Trill r

The letter z spells /ts/ arising from underlying //ts//, //ds// or //ðs//, and similarly x spells /ks/ arising from underlying //ks//, //gs// or //ɣs//.

It is not clear whether all these spellings represent distinct phonemes or whether they do so in all positions.

Unresolved issues in the phonology

The status of palatal(ized) and labiovelar sounds as phonemes or clusters also remains to be determined. Contemporary Old Swedish was in the process of developing palatal phonemes through palatalization of clusters ending in /j/ and of velars before front vowels. In contemporary Old Swedish /sj/ and /sk/ before /j/ and front vowels were probably in the process of developing into /ʃ/. If the same was true of Mærik cannot be determined. The nonce appearance of sch in schee 'adferre' is hardly decisive.

The status of /w/ vs /v/ is also to be determined. The many cases of w between vowels as opposed to ffu between vowels (e.g. priffua 'consolare') suggest that /w/ was indeed a separate phoneme and more widespread than the [w] of Old Swedish. It is therefore assumed that w is /w/ while initial v before vowels and ffu between vowels is /v/. There are even two occurrences of initial ffu before vowels, viz. fuaa 'wash clothes' and ffuea 'clear land'.

At the same time inherited /kʷ/ and /gʷ/ were probably not monophonemic any more in Old Swedish, while [w] had become an allophone of /v/. As /w/ was probably still a phoneme in Mærik it may be that qw and gw in spite of their low frequency should be analyzed similarly.

Sandhi allophones

The phonemic status of th and ch is not fully determined. It seems as if th between voiced sounds, or word finally after a voiced sound, always represents underlying phonemic /tð/ and phonetically is [tθ], and likewise ch between voiced sounds, or word finally after a voiced sound, represents phonemic /kɣ/ and phonetic [kx]. Thus in Mærik [x] and [θ] only occur as assimilation of /ɣ/ or /ð/ to a neighboring voiceless obstruent. On the other hand underlying //ðð// {and //ɣɣ// surface as /dd/ and /gg/, while ffu probably spells ungeminated voiced /v/ in complementary distribution with geminated voiceless /ff/ as in Old Swedish.

Morphology

Nouns and Adjectives

Case endings are as follows:

Modern name Marker English translation Name in the manuscript
1 Nominative/Vocative: -0 (zero) (subject) nominativus vel vocativus
2 Accusative: -dh (direct object) accusativus
3 Dative: -s 'for' dativus
4 Genitive: -k 'of' genitivus
5 Ablative: -r 'from'/'out of' ablativus
6 Instrumental: -gh 'with' ablativus instrumenti vel comitativus
7 Locative: -m 'at'/'in' ablativus loci
8 Allative: -i 'to'/'into' accusativus adeundi

The nominative marks the subject of the sentence.

The accusative marks the direct object.

Between these endings and the stem a theme vowel -e- or -o-, sometimes appears. Variant spellings are -i- and -u/w- respectively. With the allative the front alternant is -ei/-ij/-i and the back alternant -oi/-ui/-wj.

Suffixaufnahme

Mærik has Suffixaufnahme or "case stacking", i.e. a noun carrying a genitive ending may take a further grammatical or local case ending, e.g. dølk 'the farmer's', dølks or dølx 'for the farmer's' (dative of genitive). The usual sandhi phenomena apply, such as ablative dølkær 'from the farmer's', accusative dølkth. Special note should be taken of the frequent instrumental genitives in -ch, which suggest [kx] as a sandhi allophone for /kɣ/: dølch 'by the farmer's', hathfach [haθfakx] /haðfakɣ/ 'by the horse's'.

Plural

The plural morpheme is -n. It appears written most often as -in and -un respectively, more rarely -en or -on/-wn. To these plural terminations the same case endings as in the singular are added as follows:

1 Nominative: -n
2 Accusative: -nd
3 Dative: -ns/-nz
4 Genitive: -nk
5 Ablative: -nnær
6 Instrumental: -ng
7 Locative: -num
8 Allative: -ni

Note that in combining with the plural marker -n- the endings undergo some sandhi changes: the accusative -dh and the instrumental -gh become voiced stops. The dative has an optional epenthetic [t] (/nts/ written -nz) and the ablative and locative receive svarabhakti vowels. It is not clear whether the spelling -ni in the allative plural represents /ni/ or /nj/, since the spelling is deficient.

In Suffixaufnahme where the second ending takes the plural an epenthetic a vowel is inserted, e.g. vantkanz skonz 'for the men of the village'.

Adjectives

Adjectives inflect for case and number in congruence with their nouns, e.g. verghar trækker "From a big house", hughand skond "poor men (acc.)".

Sometimes the same word functions as an adjective and as a noun for the quality denoted by the adjective.

Adverbs

Most derived adverbs and some primary end in -m (with theme vowel). This formant is observed to coincide with the locative ending - probably not a coincidence!

Pronouns

Pronouns generally take adjectival inflection, i.e. with the plural ending -an

Personal pronouns

There are distinct inclusive and exclusive forms in first person plural.

wæll: 'me - I' wællk: 'my/ mine'

ton: 'you sg. (thou)' tonk: 'your(s) (thy/thine)'

ro: 'he' rook: 'his'

ni: 'she' niik: 'her(s)'

edd: 'it' ettk/etk: 'its'

foott: 'we incl.' ('I and you' or 'we and you') foottuk: 'our(s) incl.' ('Mine and yours' or 'Ours and yours')

mær: 'we excl.' (We but not you) mærik: 'our(s) excl.' (Ours but not yours)

han: 'you pl.' hank: 'your(s) pl.'

se: 'they' seek: 'their(s)'

Demonstrative pronouns

ordh: 'this', pl. ordhan 'these' (Lat. hic)

ann: that (nearby)' pl. annan 'those' (Lat. iste)

edd: 'that (far)' pl. eddan 'those' (Lat. ille)


The enclitic demonstrative pronoun/definite article

The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitically postposed to a noun, in which case their meaning is similar to a definite article. Both the noun and the "article" inflect for case.

The enclitic demonstratives/article demonstrated on the noun luk 'child'
-ordh -ann -edd
Singular
Nom.: lukordh lukan luked 'the child' (subject)
Acc.: lukthord lukthand lukthed 'the child' (direct object)
Dat.: luxorz luxanz luxez 'for the child'
Gen.: lukkorthk lukkank lukketk 'of the child'
Abl.: lukrordhær lukrannær lukreddær 'from the child'
Instr.: luchordhgh luchang luchedg 'with the child'
Loc.: lukmordhum lukmannum lukmeddum 'at/in the child'
All.: lukiørdhi lukiænni lukieddi 'to/into the child'
Plural
Nom.: lukunordhan lukunan lukuneddan 'the children' (subject)
Acc.: lukundordhan lukundand lukundeddan 'the children' (direct object)
Dat.: lukunzordhanz lukunzanz lukunzeddanz 'for the children'
Gen.: lukankordhank lukunkank lukunketank 'of the children'
Abl.: lukunærordhanær lukunærannær lukunæreddanær 'from the children'
Instr.: lukungordhang lukungang lukungeddang 'with the children'
Loc.: lukumordhanum lukumannum lukumeddanum 'at/in the children'
All.: lukuniørdhani lukuniænni lukunieddani 'to/into the children'

Note the frequent haplology in the plural of the -ann forms! In practice it means that the plural marker of the -ann article disappears entirely, so that only the noun carries plural marking. The locative plural is especially treacherous.

It should be observed that the -ann forms are often used where the context would properly call for the -ordh or -edd forms.

Where an adjective precedes the noun the preposed demonstrative is used: edd grøtth lukth 'that small child (acc.)'.

Interrogative pronouns

fiørn: 'who?' pl. fiørnan

fann: 'what?' pl. fannan

fwnn: 'how much?' pl. fwnnan 'how many?'

følk: 'which?' pl. følkian

faat: 'when?'

fedd: 'where?'

fwdh: 'why?'

Relative pronouns

iørn: 'who' pl. iørnan

øll: 'which' pl. øllian

aat: when

wdh: therefore

Other pronouns

vek: 'self' (reflexive -- note genitive veck and dative vex!)

pl. vekan 'selves'

hyyn: 'each other' (pl.)

dødhzsk: 'respectively' (formally a genitive singular)

sakt: 'something, a thing' pl. saktan

gøm: 'you, one, they (indefinite)' pl. gømian

siæn: 'any' pl. siænan

hwalt: 'same'

Verbs

The present ends in -e/-o/-a, probably derived from earlier long theme vowels *-ē, *-ō, *-ā.

In not a few verbs the present marker contains a t (*-tē, *-tō, *-tā), most notably olto 'there is' and ganta 'not be'. Sometimes an intrusive -p- comes between the -t- present formant and a root ending in -m e.g. rampta 'know a person', with the past tense ramma.

The infinitive or gerund, the imperative and the supine all consist in the bare stem, and can be distinguished only by their function, except that the infinitive/gerund can be inflected like a noun and the imperative often but not always is followed by a pronoun in the nominative/vocative.

The past tense formant is -ma/-mo.

Where there is a -t- in the present tense formant this -t- disappears in the past tense: thus from the present olto there is the past olmo, and from the present kræfte 'departs' there is the past kraffma (Note also the lack of i-umlaut in the past tense!). N.B. gamma, the past of ganta (usually spelled gam̄a), and swmmo (also sunmo) 'covered' from swnto. However sometimes the -t- is part of the root, e.g. lita 'hear', p.t. lijtma.

The subjunctive formant is -sa/-so.

These two are fused as -sma/-smo in past subjunctive.

Note that the subjunctive marker s goes after the present tense marker t if that is present, e.g. kræftza 'would depart', but before the past tense marker ma, as in kræfsma 'would have departed'.

Person inflection on verbs

Singular
1. -wl/-wVl/-l (-aw(a)l/-ew(e)l/-ol) 'I'
2. -ck 'you'(sg.), 'thou'
3. -∅ (zero)
Plural
1. excl. -ff 'we'
1. incl. -rr 'you and I', 'we and you'
2. -n 'you'(pl.)
3. -ss 'they'

Participles

There are active participles in -rt and passive participles in -t from both the present and past stems:

Present active: lekart "speaking"
Present passive: lekat "being spoken"
Past active: leekmart "been speaking"
Past passive: leekmat "spoken"
Compound tenses

There are some compound tenses and moods using participles. The most important is the passive formed with fere 'be' and the present passive participle:

Ferewæl lekat 'I am spoken'.

There is also a perfect and a pluperfect using fere and the past active participle:

Ferewæl leekmart 'I have spoken',

Fermawal leekmart 'I had spoken'.

Lastly there is a future using boko 'become' and the present active participle:

Bokwol lekart 'I will/shall/am going to speak'.

These compound tenses are not used nearly as often as the corresponding forms in English and other modern Germanic languages. Thus the simple present is usually found for future reference and the simple past for perfect and pluperfect reference.

Negation

Negation is made with the verb ganta 'there is not' + stem form of the verb + instrumental of agent:

ganta lek mærikth skawdh niigh 'she doesn't speak our language' (lit. 'there is not speak our language by her').

gan -ta -0 lek -0 mæri -k -th skaw -dh nii -gh
not.be -PRES -3.sg. speak -SUP we.exclusive -GEN -ACC tongue -ACC she -INSTR

Since the object stands in accusative this is not a true ergative, but may be indicative of transition between types.

Syntax

The main constituent order is VSO.

Mærik is a pro-drop language. As Mærik is concerned this means that subject pronouns in the nominative are normally left out since the subject is sufficiently expressed by the person ending on the verb, but object pronouns have to be expressed since the object is not expressed in the verb.

There are many idioms involving in particular the locative and the dative where other languages would use nominative or accusative.

Verbs of perception and experiencing take the experiencer in the dative.

The genitive can be used in partitive function.

Many adverbs are formally locatives of nouns or adjectives and constructed accordingly.