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| '''[[Svanniskar|Svannískar]]''' is a Germanic language spoken in the Kingdom of [[Svannland]]. It has moderately complex syntax, mostly concerned with different clause types, word order, and adjective placement. This section will aslo deal with the uses of the various verb forms, as well as the formation of compound tenses.
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| ==Verbal Morphology==
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| Svannískar's verbs inflect for a great many things. Each verb has four principle parts: infinitive, first person singular preterite indicative, first person plural preterite indicative, and past participle. Each stem has a number of things derived from it:
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| * 1. present indicative, participle, imperative, and subjunctive.
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| * 2. all singular preterite indicative forms.
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| * 3. all preterite plural indicative and preterite subjunctive forms.
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| * 4. all forms of the past participle, and any derived forms.
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|
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| ===Strong Verbs===
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| Some verbs in Svannískar are classified as ''strong verbs'', characterized by an internal vowel shift (ablaut) in principal parts 2-4. There are three classes of strong verbs, characterized by the end of their ablaut pattern.
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| * I: a > æ > i > i (i-stems)
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| * II: o > ø > u >u (u-stems)
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| * III: i(l,r,m,n) > a(l,r,m,n) > u(l,r,m,n) > u(l,r,m,n) (consonant-stems; C-stems)
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| * IV: i > y > u > u (y-stems)
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| ===Weak Verbs===
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| Most verbs in Svannískar are classified as ''weak verbs'', which lack the internal vowel shift. Weak verbs have a single set of conjugation endings for each tense.
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| ===Preterite-Present Verbs===
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| A very few verbs in Svannískar (notably '''máġan''', "be able" and skállan "hope, wish") behave in the present tense as if they were the preterites of strong verbs, and their plural present indicatives are the same as all of their preterite forms. Preterite-present verbs have different principal parts from other verbs:
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| * 1. Infinitive
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| * 2. First person singular, present indicative
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| * 3. First person plural, present indicative
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| * 4. First person singular, preterite indicative<br>
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| For example, the principle parts of máġan: máġan, mǽġ, míġum, míġ.
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| ===Indicative Mood===
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| The indicative mood is used to make factual statements, tell fictional stories, and to quote another person. The indicative mood is the default mood, and is used in the vast majority of cases where a verb is used.
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| * I ''run''.
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| * John ''walked'' to school that day.
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| * "He said, 'I ''love'' to swim.'"
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| ===Subjunctive Mood===
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| The subjunctive mood is much less common. It is used to express contrafactual ideas and thoughts, as well as to make indirect statements, to express possibility or wish, and the like. The subjunctive mood can also express exhortation (indirect commands).
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| * ''Had'' I time, I would help.
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| * I ''wish'' I that I ''could'' help.
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| * ''Let'' them ''come''.
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| ===Imperative Mood===
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| The imperative mood is used to give direct commands. It is generally considered impolite to use the imperative mood with one's elders or superiors.
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| * ''Come'' here.
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| * ''O come'' all ''ye'' faithful.
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| * ''Do'' as I say.
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| ===Present Tense===
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| The present tense expresses action simultaneous to or closely following the speaking. Many modal auxiliary verbs have one meaning in the present tense and another one in the preterite, an important distinction to make.
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| * I ''walk''.
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| * I ''am about to walk''.
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| * I ''will walk''.
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| ===Preterite Tense===
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| The preterite tense expresses action prior to the speaking. It typically carries either an imperfect (used to) sense or a perfective (simple past) sense, but in older texts it is also often used where a more recent writer would use the modal perfect.
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| ===Modal Auxiliaries===
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| The subjunctive forms of a number of verbs can be used with the infinitive or either participle of another verb to take on a secondary connotation, such as English ''will'', ''would'', ''can'', ''could'', and so on. Many of these verbs have different connotations depending on whether they are preterite or present tense forms. Many, such as '''skállan''' and '''máġan''' are preterite-present verbs, and many also have irregular preterites ('''wóld''' and '''skóld''', for example). Here are some of the most common such verbs:
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| * '''máġan''': can (present), could (preterite); plain meaning: to be able (to)
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| * '''háven''': have [verb]ed (with past participle); plain meaning: to have
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| * '''wýllon''': will (present), would (preterite); plain meaning: to want, wish
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| * '''skállan''': shall (present), should (preterite); plain meaning: to wish, hope
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| * '''
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| ===Infinitive===
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| The infinitive is equivalent to the English infinitive, though in translation the English "to" is not obligatory: '''ik wýllu fáran''' (I want to go) vs. '''ik wýllæ fáran''' (I will go). Infinitives in Svannískar may end in -an, -en, or -on.
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| ===Present Participle===
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| The present participle is equivalent to the English present participle. As in English, it is used in the formation of the progressive tenses, but unlike English it also appears in the immediate future tense: '''ik ím fárandar''' (I am going) vs. '''ik fáru fárandar''' (I am going to go).
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| ===Past Participle===
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| The past participle is equivalent to the English past participle. Like in English, it is used in the formation of the modal perfect tenses and the passive voice: '''ik hávu gefírtar''' (I have gone) vs. '''ik ím for-gewolttar''' (I am wished for).
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| ===Gerund===
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| The gerund is equivalent to the English gerund. It is used as a verbal noun. It can also function as a defective supine form with verbs of motion, best translated by the infinitive: '''fáranþar íst góðar''' (running is good) vs. '''ik sándu þan fýhtanþa''' (I send them to fight--lit. "for fighting")
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| ==Compound Tenses==
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| There are a great number of compound tense forms in Svannískar. Compound tenses are formed by a combination of a modal verb (usually one of the above) and either an infinitive or a participle. The compound tenses are as follows.
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| ===Modal Perfect===
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| The modal perfect tenses are formed by combining the verb '''háven''' with the past participle of a verb. They are equivalent to the English perfect tenses:
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| * '''ik hávu gefírtar''' (I have gone)
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| * '''þu hǽft gefýhtar''' (you have fought)
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| ===Progressive Tenses===
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| The progressive tenses are formed by combining the verb '''wésan''' with the present participle of a verb. They are equivalent to the English progressive tenses:
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| * '''ik ím farándar''' (I am going)
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| * '''þu ís fýhtandar''' (you are fighting)
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| ===Passive Voice===
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| The passive voice is formed by combining the verb '''wésan''' with the past participle of a verb. It is the equivalent to the English passive voice:
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| * '''sa íst gegíftar''' (it is given)
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| * '''þu ís gekwúþtar''' (you are told)
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| ===Modal Future===
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| The modal future tenses are formed by combining the subjunctive forms of the verb '''wýllan''' with the infinitive of a verb. They are equivalent to the American English future (present subjunctive) or conditional (preterite subjunctive):
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| * '''ik wýllæ fáran''' (I will go)
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| * '''ik wóld fáran''' (I would go)
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| ===Modal Suggestive===
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| The modal suggestive tenses are formed by combining the subjunctive forms of the verb '''skállan''' with the infinitive of a verb. They are equivalent to the British English future (present subjunctive) or suggestive (preterite subjunctive).
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| * '''ik skállæ fáran''' (I shall go)
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| * '''ik skóld fáran''' (I should/ought go)
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| ===Modal Potential===
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| The modal potential tenses are formed by combining the present subjunctive forms of the verb '''máġan''' with the infinitive of a verb. They are equivalent to the English permissive or potential forms.
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| * '''ik míġ fáran''' (I can/could/may/might go)
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| ==Nominal Morphology==
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| Svannískar is a richly inflected language. Each noun inflects for one of five cases in two numbers. Nouns are divided into strong and weak classes.
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| ===Nominative Case===
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| The nominative case indicates the subject of a verb. In English:
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| * ''I'' run.
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| * ''It'' was given.
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| ===Accusative Case===
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| The accusative case in its most basic sense indicates the direct object of a verb. In English:
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| * I gave ''it''.<br>
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| The accusative case may also be used with a preposition of motion to indicate ''motion towards'':
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| * I run ''to it''.<br>
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| Finally, the accusative may also be used as the subject of an infinitive clause:
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| * I told ''you'' to give it to her.
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| ===Dative Case===
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| The dative case in its most basic sense indicates the indirect object of a verb. In English:
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| * I gave it ''to her''.<br>
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| The dative case may also be used with a preposition of location to indicate ''location within'':
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| * The mouse is ''in the box''.<br>
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| Finally, the dative case may be used to describe the agent of a passive verb.
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| * The cake was made ''by me''.
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| ===Genitive Case===
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| The genitive case in its most basic sense indicates possession or origin. In English:
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| * It is ''mine''.
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| * The United States ''of America'' are political divisions.<br>
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| The genitive case may also be used with a preposition of motion to indicate ''motion from'':
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| * I went ''away from the school''.<br>
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| Finally, the genitive may be used to describe a divided whole (the partitive genitive):
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| * One ''of the soldiers'' came into the room.
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| ===Instrumental Case===
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| The instrumental case in its most basic sense indicates means. In English:
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| * I sprayed the wall ''with paint''.<br>
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| The instrumental case may also be used with a variety of prepositions to indicate accompaniment or simultaneity:
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| * I walked ''with you''.
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| * ''During the run'', I met her.
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| Finally, the instrumental may be used to compare nouns or adjectives:
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| * "I wandered lonely ''as a cloud''."
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| ===Gender===
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| Nouns in Svannískar belong to one of three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter. Most of the time, words with natural gender have the same grammatical gender (e.g. "man" is masculine), but there are exceptions. Each gender has at least two declension patterns, one or more weak and one or more strong. Nouns are classified by stem vowel (or occaisionally consonant), e.g. a-stems, i-stems, etc.
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| ==Case Uses==
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| Traditional grammar includes various specific definitions of cases, typically around four for each case other than the nominative.
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| ===Accusative of Motion Towards===
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| With the preposition '''to''' "to", the accusative takes the meaning of motion towards a place.
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| * '''ik fáru ''to þan Kyningdóma Svannlánder''''' (I go ''to the Kingdom of Svannland'')
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| ===Accusative of Time Within Which===
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| With adverbs of time, the accusative describes events occurring within a certain period (e.g. from 8.00 to 12.00).
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| * '''''fram ahto to twæ-lif'' ik fǽr to þan Kyningdóma Svannlánder''' (''from 8.00 to 12.00'' I went to the Kingdom of Svannland)
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| ===Accusative of Infinite Subject===
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| Within an infinitive clause, the accusative can act as both the subject of an infinitive verb and the direct object of a finite verb.
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| * '''ik kwíþu ''þik'' to þan Kyningdóma Svannlánder fáran''' (I tell ''you'' to go to the Kingdom of Svannland)
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| ===Accusative of Internal Object===
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| The internal object accusative is a redundant object of a verb (e.g. "I have a possession").
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| * '''ik hávu ''ǽnam gehíftano''''' (I have ''a possession'')
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| ===Dative of Location===
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| With the preposition '''in''' "in", the dative takes the meaning of location in a place.
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| * '''ik wás ''in þésma Kyningdóma Svannlánder''''' (I was ''in the Kingdom of Svannland'')
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| ===Dative of Time At Which===
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| With adverbs of time, the dative describes events occurring at a certain point in time (e.g. at 8.00)
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| * '''''at ahto'' ik kǿm to þan Kyningdóma Svannlánder''' (''at eight'' I came to the Kingdom of Svannland)
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| ===Dative of Infinite Subject===
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| Within an infinitive clause, the dative can act as both the subject of an infinitive verb and the indirect object of a finite verb.
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| * '''ik sǽge ''þe'' to þan Kyningdóma Svannlánder fáran''' (I said ''to you'' to go to the Kingdom of Svannland)
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| ===Dative of Personal Agent===
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| The dative may be used with the preposition '''bi''' "by" to indicate the agent of a passive verb.
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| * '''þu wást gesǽgittar ''bi me''''' (you were told ''by me'')
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| ===Genitive of Motion From===
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| With the preposition '''fram''' "from", the genitive takes the meaning of motion away from a place.
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| * '''ik fǽr ''fram þes Kyningdómer Svannlánder''' (I went from the Kingdom of Svannland)
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| ===Genitive of Time From Which===
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| With adverbs of time, the dative ascribes a temporal beginning to certain events (e.g. since 8.00)
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| * '''''jæ ahto'' ik hávu gefírtar fram þes Kyningdómer Svannlánder''' (since 8.00 I have left the Kingdom of Svannland)
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| ===Genitive of the Divided Whole===
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| The genitive case may describe a larger entity to which a single thing or group of things belong.
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| * '''þæ ''þes Svánner'' ðat wóldun þan dón''' (those of the Svannar that would do that)
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| ===Genitive of Local Origin===
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| The genitive case may describe the origin of a person (i.e., their home city/town/village/farm/forest/etc.).
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| * '''þæ mánnos ''Skavárner'' fírum''' (the ''Skavarnic'' men went)
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| ===Instrumental of Means===
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| The instrumental may be used with the preposition '''með''' "with" to indicate instrument (tool).
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| * '''Jónnar tǽked þen ''með bǿki''''' (John taught them ''with a book'')
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| ===Instrumental of Manner===
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| The instrumental may be used with the preposition '''þur''' "through" to indicate path or way.
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| * '''Jónnar fǽr ''þur þy Kyningdǿmi Svannlánder''''' (John went ''through the Kingdom of Svannland'')
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| ===Instrumental of Accompaniment===
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| The instrumental may be used with the preposition '''með''' "with" to indicate presence with or (dis)agreement with.
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| * '''þæ ne trǿstend ''með mik''''' (they do not agree ''with me'')
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| ===Instrumental of Definition===
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| The instrumental case is used when describing a person's employment or place of origin. This can be used more or less interchangeably with the genitive of local origin.
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| * '''þæ mánnos sínd ''Skavǽrni''''' (the men are ''Skavarnic'')
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| ==Word Order==
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| Svannískar has three word orders, depending on the type of clause.
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| ===Primary Clauses===
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| Primary clauses are clauses which have finite verbs, can stand on their own as sentences, and are neither imperative, suggestive, nor contrafactual. Primary clauses have a Subject-Verb-Object order:
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| * '''ik gávu þan þe''' (I give it to you)
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| ===Dependent Clauses===
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| Dependent clauses are clauses which have finite verbs but cannot stand on their own as sentences. Dependent clauses have a (Subject-)Object-Verb order:
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| * '''ik gávu þan, ''ðat mín wás'', þe''' (I gave it, ''which was mine'', to you)
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| ===Infinitive Clauses===
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| Infinitive clauses are clauses which have non-finite verbs and cannot stand on their own as sentences. Infinitive clauses have a Subject-Object-Verb order. Infinitive clauses feature the Accusative of Infinite Subject:
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| * '''ik kwíþu ''þik'' fáran''' (I told ''you to go'')
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| ===Imperative and Suggestive Clauses===
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| Imperative clauses are clauses which give (direct or indirect) commands or suggestions and may or may not include a subject. Imperative clauses have a Verb-(Subject-)Object order:
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| * '''kwíþaþ jur me''' (speak you to me)
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| * '''kwíþæþ jur me''' (may you speak to me)
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| ===Contrafactual Clauses===
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| Contrafactual clauses are clauses which make an untrue statement and are generally unable to stand on their own as sentences. Contrafactual clauses have a Verb-(Subject-)Object order:
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| * '''''if hávæ ik þan'', ik wóld þan þe gávan''' (''If I had it'', I would give it to you)
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| ==Adjectives and Adverbs==
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| Adjectives and adverbs have a number of rules associated with them. Adjectives and adverbs both generally precede the word they modify.
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| ===Adjectives===
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| Adjectives precede the noun they modify in the vast majority of cases. They must agree with (match) the noun in case, gender, and number:
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| * '''sa góðanu mánna'''<br>
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| When placed between '''sa''' used as the definite article and the noun it modifies, or after a conjugated verb, an adjective declines weakly, unless it is one of the following:
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| * A past participle
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| * '''ǽnar''', '''ǽnu''', '''ǽnam'''
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| * A possessive pronoun
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| * A superlative form in '''-ístar'''<br>
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| The following adjectives always decline weak:
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| * Present participles
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| * Comparative forms in '''-íron'''
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| * Second (or third, fourth, etc.) adjectives in a noun phrase (e.g. '''góðos, gláðæ mánnos sínd hin''')
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| * Numeric adjectives (e.g. '''twæ''', '''twor''', '''two''' "two")<br>
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| Adjectives rarely follow the noun they modify in modern prose, though in older texts they often do. However, modern texts only place adjectives after nouns for poetic reasons.
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| ===Adverbs===
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| Unlike adjectives or verbs, adverbs neither decline nor conjugate, but rather maintain a static form. There are a few rules about adjective placement:
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| * In primary clauses, adverbs immediately precede the verb they modify.
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| * In verb-final clauses, adverbs immediately follow the verb (or infinitive) they modify.
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| * In verb-initial clauses, adverbs may either precede or follow the verb they modify, depending on the whim of the speaker.
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