Cernelian/Phonetics and orthography: Difference between revisions

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== Phonetics ==
== Consonants ==
=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
Line 8: Line 7:
! rowspan="2" | Alveo-palatal
! rowspan="2" | Alveo-palatal
! colspan="2" | Velar
! colspan="2" | Velar
! rowspan="2" | Glottal
|-
|-
! Plain
! Plain
Line 21: Line 19:
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
|
|
|
|-
|-
Line 32: Line 29:
| {{IPA|/k ɡ/}}
| {{IPA|/k ɡ/}}
| {{IPA|/kʲ ɡʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/kʲ ɡʲ/}}
| ({{IPA|/ʔ/}})
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Affricate
Line 40: Line 36:
| {{IPA|/t͡ʂ d͡ʐ/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ʂ d͡ʐ/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/}}
|
|
|
|
|
Line 52: Line 47:
| {{IPA|/x/}}
| {{IPA|/x/}}
| {{IPA|/xʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/xʲ/}}
|
|-
|-
! Tap
! Tap
|
|
|
|
| {{IPA|/r/}}
| {{IPA|/ɾ/}}
|
|
|
|
|
Line 70: Line 63:
| {{IPA|/j/}}
| {{IPA|/j/}}
| {{IPA|/w/}}
| {{IPA|/w/}}
|
|
|
|}
|}
Unlike Polish, Cernelian has the phoneme {{IPA|/ʔ/}} that arose between vowels to avoid hiatus (''jeócmie'' {{IPA|/jɛˈʔutsmʲjɛ/}} "if we share"), but this was actually not phonemic.
Like Polish, Cernelian exhibits final-obstruent devoicing that causes word-final voiced obstruents become devoiced (prów {{IPA|/pruf/}} "flock"). Obstruents (plosives and fricatives), when voiced are unvoiced before unvoiced obstruents, while when unvoiced become voiced before voiced obstruents ({{IPA|/x/}} has the voiced allophone {{IPA|[ɣ]}}).


=== Vowels ===
=== Consonant structure ===
The maximal consonant structure in Cernelian is ''CCCVCC'' (C = consonants, V = vowels).
 
== Vowels ==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |
Line 110: Line 105:
The nasal vowels become {{IPA|/ɛn, ɔn/}} before plosives and affricates, {{IPA|/ɛm, ɔm/}} before labials, {{IPA|/ɛŋ, ɔŋ/}} before post-alveolars and velars, {{IPA|/ɛɲ, ɔɲ/}} before alveo-palatals, and {{IPA|/ɛ, ɔ/}} before ''l'' or ''ł'' and word-finally in the case of ''ę''.
The nasal vowels become {{IPA|/ɛn, ɔn/}} before plosives and affricates, {{IPA|/ɛm, ɔm/}} before labials, {{IPA|/ɛŋ, ɔŋ/}} before post-alveolars and velars, {{IPA|/ɛɲ, ɔɲ/}} before alveo-palatals, and {{IPA|/ɛ, ɔ/}} before ''l'' or ''ł'' and word-finally in the case of ''ę''.


=== Stress ===
== Consonant gradation ==
Like Polish, Cernelian words are almost always stressed in penultimate (second-from-last) syllable. However, some conservative eastern and southern dialects influenced by Russian and Ukrainian, have unpredictable stress (''jeò'' "to grind" vs. ''jèo'' "times", but both are stressed as ''jèo'' in standard variant).
Like Finnish and Estonian, consonant gradation (involving lenition, Cernelian: ''sona'', lit. "voicing", or ''lenicja'') are frequent in Cernelian. However, it is not possible to predict the ending whose affected by gradation (weak grade), due to syllable structure changes. This is the gradation table:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Strong grade<br>(unaffected)
! colspan="2" | Weak grade<br>(affected)
|-
! Plain
! Palatal
! Plain
! Palatal
|-
| ''k''
| ''cz''/''c''
| ''∅''/''g''
| ''ż''/''dz''
|-
| ''t''
| ''ć''/''ci''
| ''∅''/''d''
| ''dź''/''dzi''
|-
| ''p''
| ''p''/''pi''
| ''∅''/''w''
| ''w''/''wi''
|-
| ''s''/''ch''
| ''ś''/''si''/''sz''
| ''∅''/''z''
| ''j''/''i''/''∅''
|}
The weak grades ''g'', ''d'', and ''w'' are used after nasal vowels (nom. pl. ''pięzo'' : dat. pl. ''pięsoję'' "people, suppletive plural of ''jęziemnię''"). The nature of palatal weak grade of ''s'' varies: ''j'' are used intervocalically, ''i'' used after the rest of consonants, and ''∅'' (just succeeding vowels, ''i'' → ''y'') only used after consonants ''c'', ''cz'', ''dż'', ''l'', ''sz'', and ''ż''. The exact history of the gradations are:
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Proto-Finnic
! colspan="2" | Proto-Cernelian
! rowspan="2" | Cernelian
|-
! Early
! Late
|-
| ''-kV<sup>b</sup>-''
| colspan="3" | ''-k-''
|-
| ''-kV<sup>f</sup>-'', ''-kjV''
| ''-k-''
| ''-č-''
| ''-cz-''
|-
| ''-kV<sup>b</sup>V<sup>f</sup>-''
| ''-k-''
| ''-c-''
| ''-c-''
|-
| ''-CgV<sup>b</sup>-''
| ''-CC-''
| colspan="2" | ''-C-''
|-
| ''-NgV<sup>b</sup>-''
| colspan="3" | ''-g-''
|-
| ''-V<sup>b</sup>gV<sup>b</sup>-''<br>(adjacent vowels)
| ''-V̄-''
| colspan="2" | ''-V-''
|-
| ''-gV<sup>f</sup>-''
| ''-g-''
| ''-ž-''
| ''-ż-''
|-
| ''-CgV<sup>b</sup>V<sup>f</sup>-''
| ''-g-''
| ''-dz-''
| ''-dz-''
|-
| ''-pV<sup>b</sup>-''
| colspan="3" | ''-p-''
|-
| ''-pV<sup>f</sup>-'', ''-pV<sup>b</sup>V<sup>f</sup>-'', ''-pjV-''
| ''-p-''
| ''-p-''
| ''-p-'', ''-piV-''
|-
|-
| ''-CbV<sup>b</sup>-''
| ''-CC-''
| colspan="2" | ''-C-''
|-
| ''-NbV<sup>b</sup>-''
| colspan="3" | ''-b-''
|-
| ''-V<sup>b</sup>bV<sup>b</sup>-''<br>(adjacent vowels)
| ''-V̄-''
| colspan="2" | ''-V-''
|-
| ''-bV<sup>f</sup>-'', ''-CbV<sup>b</sup>V<sup>f</sup>-''
| ''-w-''
| ''-v-''
| ''-w-'', ''-wiV-''
|}
 
The endings often affected by weak gradation include:
* Nominative (including accusative and vocative) plurals of regular declensions (''śció'' : ''sio'' "pig, pigs"), and locative, ablative, and instrumental plurals of most declensions (''śció'', ''siaso'' "pig, in the pigs")
* 1st and 2nd person singular past tenses (''jaka'' : ''jeżę'' "to share, I shared")
* All of the conditional endings
 
== Stress ==
Like Polish, Cernelian words are almost always stressed in penultimate (second-from-last) syllable. However, some conservative eastern and southern dialects influenced by Russian and Ukrainian, have unpredictable stress (''sonò'' "word" vs. ''sòno'' "sauna").
* Proto-Finnic ''*áivastàdak'' → ''jawos'''tà''''' vs. standard ''ja'''wò'''sta'' "to sneeze"
* Proto-Finnic ''*áivastàdak'' → ''jawos'''tà''''' vs. standard ''ja'''wò'''sta'' "to sneeze"
* Proto-Finnic ''*áutugas'' → '''''ù'''to'' "blessed, wealthy" (same in standard patterns)
* Proto-Finnic ''*áutugas'' → '''''ù'''two'' "blessed, wealthy" (same in standard patterns)
Note that Proto-Finnic stress is originally non-phonemic, with secondary stress existed in last non-final odd-numbered syllables.
 
=== Mobile paradigms ===
In such conservative dialects, there are numerous mobile paradigms, especially in verbs.
;History (from ''*armastadak'' to ''romostà'' "to love")
* Proto-Finnic:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" | Participles
! colspan="2" | Other non-finite
|-
! Active
| ''*armastapa''
| ''*armastanu''
! Infinitive
| ''*armastadak''
|-
! Passive
| ''*armastatapa''
| ''*armastatu''
! Verbal noun
| ''*armastama''
|-
!
! Present
! Past
! Conditional
! Imperative
|-
! 1st singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastan''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastoin''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakcin''
| ''*armastagon''
|-
! 2nd singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastat''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastoit''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakcit''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastak''
|-
! 3rd singular
| ''*armastapi''
| ''*armastoi''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakci''
| ''*armastasen''
|-
! 1st plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakmak''
| ''*armastoimak''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakcimak''
| ''*armastakadamak''
|-
! 2nd plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastaktak''
| ''*armastoidak''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakcidak''
| ''*armastakata''
|-
! 3rd plural
| ''*armastabat''
| ''*armastoi''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakci''
| ''*armastasen''
|-
! Impersonal
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastaksen''
| ''*armastatihen''
| ''*armastadakcisen''
| ''*armastatagasen''
|}
* Early Proto-Cernelian:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" | Participles
! colspan="2" | Other non-finite
|-
! Active
| ''*ármastapa''
| ''*ármastanu''
! Infinitive
| ''*armastā́ˀ''
|-
! Passive
| ''*ármastatapa''
| ''*ármastatu''
! Verbal noun
| ''*ármastama''
|-
!
! Present
! Past
! Conditional
! Imperative
|-
! 1st singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastan''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastain''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšin''
| ''*ármastān''
|-
! 2nd singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastat''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastait''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšit''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastaˀ''
|-
! 3rd singular
| ''*ármastapi''
| ''*ármastai''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀši''
| ''*ármastaˀen''
|-
! 1st plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀmaˀ''
| ''*ármastaimaˀ''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšimaˀ''
| ''*armastákāmaˀ''
|-
! 2nd plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀtaˀ''
| ''*ármastajaˀ''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšjaˀ''
| ''*ármastakata''
|-
! 3rd plural
| ''*armastā́t''
| ''*ármastai''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀši''
| ''*ármastaˀen''
|-
! Impersonal
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšen''
| ''*ármastatiˀen''
| ''*armastā́ˀšiˀen''
| ''*armastátāˀen''
|}
* Late Proto-Cernelian:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" | Participles
! colspan="2" | Other non-finite
|-
! Active
| ''*ȍrmostopo''
| ''*ȍrmostonъ''
! Infinitive
| ''*ormostà''
|-
! Passive
| ''*ȍrmostotopo''
| ''*ȍrmostotъ''
! Verbal noun
| ''*ȍrmostomo''
|-
!
! Present
! Past
! Conditional
! Imperative
|-
! 1st singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastan''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastain''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšin''
| ''*ármastān''
|-
! 2nd singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastat''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastait''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšit''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastaˀ''
|-
! 3rd singular
| ''*ármastapi''
| ''*ármastai''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀši''
| ''*ármastaˀen''
|-
! 1st plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀmaˀ''
| ''*ármastaimaˀ''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšimaˀ''
| ''*armastákāmaˀ''
|-
! 2nd plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀtaˀ''
| ''*ármastajaˀ''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšjaˀ''
| ''*ármastakata''
|-
! 3rd plural
| ''*armastā́t''
| ''*ármastai''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀši''
| ''*ármastaˀen''
|-
! Impersonal
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšen''
| ''*ármastatiˀen''
| ''*armastā́ˀšiˀen''
| ''*armastátāˀen''
|}


== Orthography ==
== Orthography ==
Line 135: Line 438:
|-
|-
| ⟨I i⟩
| ⟨I i⟩
| {{IPA|/(ʲ)i/}}<br>Palatalizes preceding consonants, see below
| {{IPA|/(ʲ)i/}} (see below)
|-
|-
| ⟨O o⟩
| ⟨O o⟩
Line 171: Line 474:
|-
|-
| ⟨Ć ć⟩
| ⟨Ć ć⟩
| {{IPA|/dʑ/}}
| {{IPA|/d͡ʑ/}}
| '''{{IPA|/tɕ/}}'''
| '''{{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}}'''
| always as ⟨c⟩
| always as ⟨c⟩
|-
| ⟨D d⟩
| '''{{IPA|/d/}}'''
| {{IPA|/t/}}
| {{IPA|/d/}}
|-
| ⟨Dź dź⟩
| '''{{IPA|/d͡ʑ/}}'''
| {{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}}
| always as ⟨dz⟩
|-
| ⟨F f⟩
| '''{{IPA|/f/}}'''
| {{IPA|/v/}}
| {{IPA|/fʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨G g⟩
| '''{{IPA|/ɡ/}}'''
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| {{IPA|/ɡʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨H h⟩
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}}
| '''{{IPA|/x/}}'''
| {{IPA|/xʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨J j⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/j/}}'''
|-
| ⟨K k⟩
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| '''{{IPA|/k/}}'''
| {{IPA|/kʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨L l⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/l/}}'''
|-
| ⟨Ł ł⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/w/}}'''
|-
| ⟨M m⟩
| colspan="2" | '''{{IPA|/m/}}'''
| {{IPA|/mʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨N n⟩
| colspan="2" | '''{{IPA|/n/}}'''
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
|-
| ⟨Ń ń⟩
| colspan="2" | '''{{IPA|/ɲ/}}'''
| Always as ⟨n⟩
|-
| ⟨P p⟩
| {{IPA|/b/}}
| '''{{IPA|/p/}}'''
| {{IPA|/pʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨R r⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/r/}}'''
|-
| ⟨Rz rz⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/ʐ/}}'''
|-
| ⟨S s⟩
| {{IPA|/z/}}
| '''{{IPA|/s/}}'''
| {{IPA|/ɕ/}}
|-
| ⟨Ś ś⟩
| {{IPA|/ʑ/}}
| '''{{IPA|/ɕ/}}'''
| Always as ⟨s⟩
|-
| ⟨T t⟩
| {{IPA|/d/}}
| colspan="2" | '''{{IPA|/t/}}'''
|-
| ⟨W w⟩
| '''{{IPA|/v/}}'''
| {{IPA|/f/}}
| {{IPA|/vʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨Z z⟩
| '''{{IPA|/z/}}'''
| {{IPA|/s/}}
| {{IPA|/ʑ/}}
|-
| ⟨Ź ź⟩
| '''{{IPA|/ʑ/}}'''
| {{IPA|/ɕ/}}
| Always as ⟨z⟩
|}
|}


''-V-'' in this context are all vowels except ⟨i⟩ and ⟨y⟩. In ''-iV-'' sequences, plosives are inserted with preceding {{IPA|/j/}} before vowels, but velars not (''Stamiece'' {{IPA|/stamʲjɛtsɛ/}} "Cernelia").
''-V-'' in this context are all vowels except ⟨i⟩ and ⟨y⟩. In ''-iV-'' sequences, plosives are inserted with preceding {{IPA|/j/}} before vowels, but velars not (''Stamiesie'' {{IPA|/staˈmʲjɛɕɛ/}} "Cernelia").
 
== Sound changes ==
:''See [[Cernelian/Sound changes]]''

Latest revision as of 16:50, 24 October 2021

Consonants

Labial Dental Post-alveolar Alveo-palatal Velar
Plain Palatal Plain Palatal
Nasal /m/ /mʲ/ /n/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/
Plosive /p b/ /pʲ bʲ/ /t d/ /k ɡ/ /kʲ ɡʲ/
Affricate /t͡s d͡z/ /t͡ʂ d͡ʐ/ /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/
Fricative /f v/ /fʲ vʲ/ /s z/ /ʂ ʐ/ /ɕ ʑ/ /x/ /xʲ/
Tap /ɾ/
Approximant /l/ /j/ /w/

Like Polish, Cernelian exhibits final-obstruent devoicing that causes word-final voiced obstruents become devoiced (prów /pruf/ "flock"). Obstruents (plosives and fricatives), when voiced are unvoiced before unvoiced obstruents, while when unvoiced become voiced before voiced obstruents (/x/ has the voiced allophone [ɣ]).

Consonant structure

The maximal consonant structure in Cernelian is CCCVCC (C = consonants, V = vowels).

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close /i/ /ɨ/ /u/
Mid Plain /ɛ/ /ɔ/
Nasal /ɛ̃/ /ɔ̃/
Open /a/

Extreme northern dialects has phonemic vowel length, denoted by acute accent (ác /aːts/ "boat", íłmo "air, sky"). Standard Cernelian have ⟨ó⟩, but only for etymological reasons.

Cernelian reflects limited vowel harmony between the vowels -o- (back) and -e- (front), otherwise the Proto-Finnic vowel harmonies *o : *ö displaced by Cernelian o : e, and *u : *y become Proto-Cernelian yers *ъ and *ь that often deleted in some positions.

The nasal vowels become /ɛn, ɔn/ before plosives and affricates, /ɛm, ɔm/ before labials, /ɛŋ, ɔŋ/ before post-alveolars and velars, /ɛɲ, ɔɲ/ before alveo-palatals, and /ɛ, ɔ/ before l or ł and word-finally in the case of ę.

Consonant gradation

Like Finnish and Estonian, consonant gradation (involving lenition, Cernelian: sona, lit. "voicing", or lenicja) are frequent in Cernelian. However, it is not possible to predict the ending whose affected by gradation (weak grade), due to syllable structure changes. This is the gradation table:

Strong grade
(unaffected) 		Weak grade
(affected)
Plain Palatal Plain Palatal
k cz/c ∅/g ż/dz
t ć/ci ∅/d dź/dzi
p p/pi ∅/w w/wi
s/ch ś/si/sz ∅/z j/i/∅

The weak grades g, d, and w are used after nasal vowels (nom. pl. pięzo : dat. pl. pięsoję "people, suppletive plural of jęziemnię"). The nature of palatal weak grade of s varies: j are used intervocalically, i used after the rest of consonants, and ∅ (just succeeding vowels, i → y) only used after consonants c, cz, dż, l, sz, and ż. The exact history of the gradations are:

Proto-Finnic Proto-Cernelian Cernelian
Early Late
-kVb- -k-
-kVf-, -kjV -k- -č- -cz-
-kVbVf- -k- -c- -c-
-CgVb- -CC- -C-
-NgVb- -g-
-VbgVb-
(adjacent vowels) 		-V̄- -V-
-gVf- -g- -ž- -ż-
-CgVbVf- -g- -dz- -dz-
-pVb- -p-
-pVf-, -pVbVf-, -pjV- -p- -p- -p-, -piV-
-CbVb- -CC- -C-
-NbVb- -b-
-VbbVb-
(adjacent vowels) 		-V̄- -V-
-bVf-, -CbVbVf- -w- -v- -w-, -wiV-

The endings often affected by weak gradation include:

  • Nominative (including accusative and vocative) plurals of regular declensions (śció : sio "pig, pigs"), and locative, ablative, and instrumental plurals of most declensions (śció, siaso "pig, in the pigs")
  • 1st and 2nd person singular past tenses (jaka : jeżę "to share, I shared")
  • All of the conditional endings

Stress

Like Polish, Cernelian words are almost always stressed in penultimate (second-from-last) syllable. However, some conservative eastern and southern dialects influenced by Russian and Ukrainian, have unpredictable stress (sonò "word" vs. sòno "sauna").

  • Proto-Finnic *áivastàdak → jawostà vs. standard jawòsta "to sneeze"
  • Proto-Finnic *áutugas → ùtwo "blessed, wealthy" (same in standard patterns)

Note that Proto-Finnic stress is originally non-phonemic, with secondary stress existed in last non-final odd-numbered syllables.

Mobile paradigms

In such conservative dialects, there are numerous mobile paradigms, especially in verbs.

History (from *armastadak to romostà "to love")
  • Proto-Finnic:
Participles Other non-finite
Active *armastapa *armastanu Infinitive *armastadak
Passive *armastatapa *armastatu Verbal noun *armastama
Present Past Conditional Imperative
1st singular *armastan *armastoin *armastakcin *armastagon
2nd singular *armastat *armastoit *armastakcit *armastak
3rd singular *armastapi *armastoi *armastakci *armastasen
1st plural *armastakmak *armastoimak *armastakcimak *armastakadamak
2nd plural *armastaktak *armastoidak *armastakcidak *armastakata
3rd plural *armastabat *armastoi *armastakci *armastasen
Impersonal *armastaksen *armastatihen *armastadakcisen *armastatagasen
  • Early Proto-Cernelian:
Participles Other non-finite
Active *ármastapa *ármastanu Infinitive *armastā́ˀ
Passive *ármastatapa *ármastatu Verbal noun *ármastama
Present Past Conditional Imperative
1st singular *ármastan *ármastain *armastáˀšin *ármastān
2nd singular *ármastat *ármastait *armastáˀšit *ármastaˀ
3rd singular *ármastapi *ármastai *armastáˀši *ármastaˀen
1st plural *armastáˀmaˀ *ármastaimaˀ *armastáˀšimaˀ *armastákāmaˀ
2nd plural *armastáˀtaˀ *ármastajaˀ *armastáˀšjaˀ *ármastakata
3rd plural *armastā́t *ármastai *armastáˀši *ármastaˀen
Impersonal *armastáˀšen *ármastatiˀen *armastā́ˀšiˀen *armastátāˀen
  • Late Proto-Cernelian:
Participles Other non-finite
Active *ȍrmostopo *ȍrmostonъ Infinitive *ormostà
Passive *ȍrmostotopo *ȍrmostotъ Verbal noun *ȍrmostomo
Present Past Conditional Imperative
1st singular *ármastan *ármastain *armastáˀšin *ármastān
2nd singular *ármastat *ármastait *armastáˀšit *ármastaˀ
3rd singular *ármastapi *ármastai *armastáˀši *ármastaˀen
1st plural *armastáˀmaˀ *ármastaimaˀ *armastáˀšimaˀ *armastákāmaˀ
2nd plural *armastáˀtaˀ *ármastajaˀ *armastáˀšjaˀ *ármastakata
3rd plural *armastā́t *ármastai *armastáˀši *ármastaˀen
Impersonal *armastáˀšen *ármastatiˀen *armastā́ˀšiˀen *armastátāˀen

Orthography

The Cernelian orthography is written in Latin, and definitely same as that of Polish.

Vowels
Letter IPA value
⟨A a⟩ /a/
⟨Ą ą⟩ /ɔ̃/ (see above)
⟨E e⟩ /ɛ/
⟨Ę ę⟩ /ɛ̃/ (see above)
⟨I i⟩ /(ʲ)i/ (see below)
⟨O o⟩ /ɔ/
⟨Ó ó⟩ /u/
⟨U u⟩
⟨Y y⟩ /ɨ/
Consonant
Letter IPA value
Elsewhere Before -i- and -iV
Voiced Unvoiced
⟨B b⟩ /b/ /p/ /bʲ/
⟨C c⟩ /dz/ /ts/ /tɕ/
⟨Ć ć⟩ /d͡ʑ/ /t͡ɕ/ always as ⟨c⟩
⟨D d⟩ /d/ /t/ /d/
⟨Dź dź⟩ /d͡ʑ/ /t͡ɕ/ always as ⟨dz⟩
⟨F f⟩ /f/ /v/ /fʲ/
⟨G g⟩ /ɡ/ /k/ /ɡʲ/
⟨H h⟩ /ɣ/ /x/ /xʲ/
⟨J j⟩ /j/
⟨K k⟩ /ɡ/ /k/ /kʲ/
⟨L l⟩ /l/
⟨Ł ł⟩ /w/
⟨M m⟩ /m/ /mʲ/
⟨N n⟩ /n/ /ɲ/
⟨Ń ń⟩ /ɲ/ Always as ⟨n⟩
⟨P p⟩ /b/ /p/ /pʲ/
⟨R r⟩ /r/
⟨Rz rz⟩ /ʐ/
⟨S s⟩ /z/ /s/ /ɕ/
⟨Ś ś⟩ /ʑ/ /ɕ/ Always as ⟨s⟩
⟨T t⟩ /d/ /t/
⟨W w⟩ /v/ /f/ /vʲ/
⟨Z z⟩ /z/ /s/ /ʑ/
⟨Ź ź⟩ /ʑ/ /ɕ/ Always as ⟨z⟩

-V- in this context are all vowels except ⟨i⟩ and ⟨y⟩. In -iV- sequences, plosives are inserted with preceding /j/ before vowels, but velars not (Stamiesie /staˈmʲjɛɕɛ/ "Cernelia").

Sound changes

See Cernelian/Sound changes
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