Cernelian/Phonetics and orthography: Difference between revisions

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== Phonetics ==
== Consonants ==
=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
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! rowspan="2" | Alveo-palatal
! rowspan="2" | Alveo-palatal
! colspan="2" | Velar
! colspan="2" | Velar
! rowspan="2" | Glottal
|-
|-
! Plain
! Plain
Line 21: Line 19:
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
|
|
|
|-
|-
Line 32: Line 29:
| {{IPA|/k ɡ/}}
| {{IPA|/k ɡ/}}
| {{IPA|/kʲ ɡʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/kʲ ɡʲ/}}
| ({{IPA|/ʔ/}})
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Affricate
Line 40: Line 36:
| {{IPA|/t͡ʂ d͡ʐ/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ʂ d͡ʐ/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/}}
|
|
|
|
|
Line 52: Line 47:
| {{IPA|/x/}}
| {{IPA|/x/}}
| {{IPA|/xʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/xʲ/}}
|
|-
|-
! Tap
! Tap
|
|
|
|
| {{IPA|/r/}}
| {{IPA|/ɾ/}}
|
|
|
|
|
Line 70: Line 63:
| {{IPA|/j/}}
| {{IPA|/j/}}
| {{IPA|/w/}}
| {{IPA|/w/}}
|
|
|
|}
|}
Unlike Polish, Cernelian has the phoneme {{IPA|/ʔ/}} that arose between vowels to avoid hiatus (''jeócmie'' {{IPA|/jɛˈʔutsmʲjɛ/}} "if we share"), but this was actually not phonemic.
Like Polish, Cernelian exhibits final-obstruent devoicing that causes word-final voiced obstruents become devoiced (prów {{IPA|/pruf/}} "flock"). Obstruents (plosives and fricatives), when voiced are unvoiced before unvoiced obstruents, while when unvoiced become voiced before voiced obstruents ({{IPA|/x/}} has the voiced allophone {{IPA|[ɣ]}}).
 
=== Consonant structure ===
The maximal consonant structure in Cernelian is ''CCCVCC'' (C = consonants, V = vowels).


=== Vowels ===
== Vowels ==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |
Line 103: Line 98:
| {{IPA|/a/}}
| {{IPA|/a/}}
|}
|}
Extreme northern dialects has phonemic vowel length, denoted by acute accent (''ác'' {{IPA|/aːts/}} "boat", ''íłmo'' "air, sky"). Standard Cernelian have ⟨ó⟩, but only for etymological reasons.


Cernelian reflects limited vowel harmony between the vowels ''-o-'' (back) and ''-e-'' (front), otherwise the Proto-Finnic vowel harmonies ''*o'' : ''*ö'' displaced by Cernelian ''o'' : ''e'', and ''*u'' : ''*y'' become Proto-Cernelian yers ''*ъ'' and ''*ь'' that often deleted in some positions.
Cernelian reflects limited vowel harmony between the vowels ''-o-'' (back) and ''-e-'' (front), otherwise the Proto-Finnic vowel harmonies ''*o'' : ''*ö'' displaced by Cernelian ''o'' : ''e'', and ''*u'' : ''*y'' become Proto-Cernelian yers ''*ъ'' and ''*ь'' that often deleted in some positions.
Line 108: Line 105:
The nasal vowels become {{IPA|/ɛn, ɔn/}} before plosives and affricates, {{IPA|/ɛm, ɔm/}} before labials, {{IPA|/ɛŋ, ɔŋ/}} before post-alveolars and velars, {{IPA|/ɛɲ, ɔɲ/}} before alveo-palatals, and {{IPA|/ɛ, ɔ/}} before ''l'' or ''ł'' and word-finally in the case of ''ę''.
The nasal vowels become {{IPA|/ɛn, ɔn/}} before plosives and affricates, {{IPA|/ɛm, ɔm/}} before labials, {{IPA|/ɛŋ, ɔŋ/}} before post-alveolars and velars, {{IPA|/ɛɲ, ɔɲ/}} before alveo-palatals, and {{IPA|/ɛ, ɔ/}} before ''l'' or ''ł'' and word-finally in the case of ''ę''.


=== Stress ===
== Consonant gradation ==
Like Polish, Cernelian words are almost always stressed in penultimate (second-from-last) syllable. However, some conservative eastern dialects has phonemic stress.
Like Finnish and Estonian, consonant gradation (involving lenition, Cernelian: ''sona'', lit. "voicing", or ''lenicja'') are frequent in Cernelian. However, it is not possible to predict the ending whose affected by gradation (weak grade), due to syllable structure changes. This is the gradation table:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Strong grade<br>(unaffected)
! colspan="2" | Weak grade<br>(affected)
|-
! Plain
! Palatal
! Plain
! Palatal
|-
| ''k''
| ''cz''/''c''
| ''∅''/''g''
| ''ż''/''dz''
|-
| ''t''
| ''ć''/''ci''
| ''∅''/''d''
| ''dź''/''dzi''
|-
| ''p''
| ''p''/''pi''
| ''∅''/''w''
| ''w''/''wi''
|-
| ''s''/''ch''
| ''ś''/''si''/''sz''
| ''∅''/''z''
| ''j''/''i''/''∅''
|}
The weak grades ''g'', ''d'', and ''w'' are used after nasal vowels (nom. pl. ''pięzo'' : dat. pl. ''pięsoję'' "people, suppletive plural of ''jęziemnię''"). The nature of palatal weak grade of ''s'' varies: ''j'' are used intervocalically, ''i'' used after the rest of consonants, and ''∅'' (just succeeding vowels, ''i'' → ''y'') only used after consonants ''c'', ''cz'', ''dż'', ''l'', ''sz'', and ''ż''. The exact history of the gradations are:
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Proto-Finnic
! colspan="2" | Proto-Cernelian
! rowspan="2" | Cernelian
|-
! Early
! Late
|-
| ''-kV<sup>b</sup>-''
| colspan="3" | ''-k-''
|-
| ''-kV<sup>f</sup>-'', ''-kjV''
| ''-k-''
| ''-č-''
| ''-cz-''
|-
| ''-kV<sup>b</sup>V<sup>f</sup>-''
| ''-k-''
| ''-c-''
| ''-c-''
|-
| ''-CgV<sup>b</sup>-''
| ''-CC-''
| colspan="2" | ''-C-''
|-
| ''-NgV<sup>b</sup>-''
| colspan="3" | ''-g-''
|-
| ''-V<sup>b</sup>gV<sup>b</sup>-''<br>(adjacent vowels)
| ''-V̄-''
| colspan="2" | ''-V-''
|-
| ''-gV<sup>f</sup>-''
| ''-g-''
| ''-ž-''
| ''-ż-''
|-
| ''-CgV<sup>b</sup>V<sup>f</sup>-''
| ''-g-''
| ''-dz-''
| ''-dz-''
|-
| ''-pV<sup>b</sup>-''
| colspan="3" | ''-p-''
|-
| ''-pV<sup>f</sup>-'', ''-pV<sup>b</sup>V<sup>f</sup>-'', ''-pjV-''
| ''-p-''
| ''-p-''
| ''-p-'', ''-piV-''
|-
|-
| ''-CbV<sup>b</sup>-''
| ''-CC-''
| colspan="2" | ''-C-''
|-
| ''-NbV<sup>b</sup>-''
| colspan="3" | ''-b-''
|-
| ''-V<sup>b</sup>bV<sup>b</sup>-''<br>(adjacent vowels)
| ''-V̄-''
| colspan="2" | ''-V-''
|-
| ''-bV<sup>f</sup>-'', ''-CbV<sup>b</sup>V<sup>f</sup>-''
| ''-w-''
| ''-v-''
| ''-w-'', ''-wiV-''
|}
 
The endings often affected by weak gradation include:
* Nominative (including accusative and vocative) plurals of regular declensions (''śció'' : ''sio'' "pig, pigs"), and locative, ablative, and instrumental plurals of most declensions (''śció'', ''siaso'' "pig, in the pigs")
* 1st and 2nd person singular past tenses (''jaka'' : ''jeżę'' "to share, I shared")
* All of the conditional endings
 
== Stress ==
Like Polish, Cernelian words are almost always stressed in penultimate (second-from-last) syllable. However, some conservative eastern and southern dialects influenced by Russian and Ukrainian, have unpredictable stress (''sonò'' "word" vs. ''sòno'' "sauna").
* Proto-Finnic ''*áivastàdak'' → ''jawos'''tà''''' vs. standard ''ja'''wò'''sta'' "to sneeze"
* Proto-Finnic ''*áutugas'' → '''''ù'''two'' "blessed, wealthy" (same in standard patterns)
Note that Proto-Finnic stress is originally non-phonemic, with secondary stress existed in last non-final odd-numbered syllables.
 
=== Mobile paradigms ===
In such conservative dialects, there are numerous mobile paradigms, especially in verbs.
;History (from ''*armastadak'' to ''romostà'' "to love")
* Proto-Finnic:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" | Participles
! colspan="2" | Other non-finite
|-
! Active
| ''*armastapa''
| ''*armastanu''
! Infinitive
| ''*armastadak''
|-
! Passive
| ''*armastatapa''
| ''*armastatu''
! Verbal noun
| ''*armastama''
|-
!
! Present
! Past
! Conditional
! Imperative
|-
! 1st singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastan''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastoin''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakcin''
| ''*armastagon''
|-
! 2nd singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastat''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastoit''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakcit''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastak''
|-
! 3rd singular
| ''*armastapi''
| ''*armastoi''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakci''
| ''*armastasen''
|-
! 1st plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakmak''
| ''*armastoimak''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakcimak''
| ''*armastakadamak''
|-
! 2nd plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastaktak''
| ''*armastoidak''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakcidak''
| ''*armastakata''
|-
! 3rd plural
| ''*armastabat''
| ''*armastoi''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastakci''
| ''*armastasen''
|-
! Impersonal
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastaksen''
| ''*armastatihen''
| ''*armastadakcisen''
| ''*armastatagasen''
|}
* Early Proto-Cernelian:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" | Participles
! colspan="2" | Other non-finite
|-
! Active
| ''*ármastapa''
| ''*ármastanu''
! Infinitive
| ''*armastā́ˀ''
|-
! Passive
| ''*ármastatapa''
| ''*ármastatu''
! Verbal noun
| ''*ármastama''
|-
!
! Present
! Past
! Conditional
! Imperative
|-
! 1st singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastan''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastain''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšin''
| ''*ármastān''
|-
! 2nd singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastat''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastait''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšit''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastaˀ''
|-
! 3rd singular
| ''*ármastapi''
| ''*ármastai''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀši''
| ''*ármastaˀen''
|-
! 1st plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀmaˀ''
| ''*ármastaimaˀ''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšimaˀ''
| ''*armastákāmaˀ''
|-
! 2nd plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀtaˀ''
| ''*ármastajaˀ''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšjaˀ''
| ''*ármastakata''
|-
! 3rd plural
| ''*armastā́t''
| ''*ármastai''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀši''
| ''*ármastaˀen''
|-
! Impersonal
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšen''
| ''*ármastatiˀen''
| ''*armastā́ˀšiˀen''
| ''*armastátāˀen''
|}
* Late Proto-Cernelian:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" | Participles
! colspan="2" | Other non-finite
|-
! Active
| ''*ȍrmostopo''
| ''*ȍrmostonъ''
! Infinitive
| ''*ormostà''
|-
! Passive
| ''*ȍrmostotopo''
| ''*ȍrmostotъ''
! Verbal noun
| ''*ȍrmostomo''
|-
!
! Present
! Past
! Conditional
! Imperative
|-
! 1st singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastan''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastain''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšin''
| ''*ármastān''
|-
! 2nd singular
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastat''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastait''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšit''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*ármastaˀ''
|-
! 3rd singular
| ''*ármastapi''
| ''*ármastai''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀši''
| ''*ármastaˀen''
|-
! 1st plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀmaˀ''
| ''*ármastaimaˀ''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšimaˀ''
| ''*armastákāmaˀ''
|-
! 2nd plural
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀtaˀ''
| ''*ármastajaˀ''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšjaˀ''
| ''*ármastakata''
|-
! 3rd plural
| ''*armastā́t''
| ''*ármastai''
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀši''
| ''*ármastaˀen''
|-
! Impersonal
| style="background:#ddd" | ''*armastáˀšen''
| ''*ármastatiˀen''
| ''*armastā́ˀšiˀen''
| ''*armastátāˀen''
|}


== Orthography ==
== Orthography ==
The Cernelian orthography is written in Latin, and definitely same as that of Polish.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Vowels
|+ Vowels
Line 122: Line 430:
| ⟨Ą ą⟩
| ⟨Ą ą⟩
| {{IPA|/ɔ̃/}} (see above)
| {{IPA|/ɔ̃/}} (see above)
|-
| ⟨E e⟩
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|-
| ⟨Ę ę⟩
| {{IPA|/ɛ̃/}} (see above)
|-
| ⟨I i⟩
| {{IPA|/(ʲ)i/}} (see below)
|-
| ⟨O o⟩
| {{IPA|/ɔ/}}
|-
| ⟨Ó ó⟩
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
| ⟨U u⟩
|-
| ⟨Y y⟩
| {{IPA|/ɨ/}}
|}
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonant
! rowspan="3" | Letter
! colspan="3" | IPA value
|-
! colspan="2" | Elsewhere
! rowspan="2" | Before ''-i-'' and ''-iV''
|-
! Voiced
! Unvoiced
|-
| ⟨B b⟩
| '''{{IPA|/b/}}'''
| {{IPA|/p/}}
| {{IPA|/bʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨C c⟩
| {{IPA|/dz/}}
| '''{{IPA|/ts/}}'''
| {{IPA|/tɕ/}}
|-
| ⟨Ć ć⟩
| {{IPA|/d͡ʑ/}}
| '''{{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}}'''
| always as ⟨c⟩
|-
| ⟨D d⟩
| '''{{IPA|/d/}}'''
| {{IPA|/t/}}
| {{IPA|/d/}}
|-
| ⟨Dź dź⟩
| '''{{IPA|/d͡ʑ/}}'''
| {{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}}
| always as ⟨dz⟩
|-
| ⟨F f⟩
| '''{{IPA|/f/}}'''
| {{IPA|/v/}}
| {{IPA|/fʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨G g⟩
| '''{{IPA|/ɡ/}}'''
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| {{IPA|/ɡʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨H h⟩
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}}
| '''{{IPA|/x/}}'''
| {{IPA|/xʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨J j⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/j/}}'''
|-
| ⟨K k⟩
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| '''{{IPA|/k/}}'''
| {{IPA|/kʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨L l⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/l/}}'''
|-
| ⟨Ł ł⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/w/}}'''
|-
| ⟨M m⟩
| colspan="2" | '''{{IPA|/m/}}'''
| {{IPA|/mʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨N n⟩
| colspan="2" | '''{{IPA|/n/}}'''
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
|-
| ⟨Ń ń⟩
| colspan="2" | '''{{IPA|/ɲ/}}'''
| Always as ⟨n⟩
|-
| ⟨P p⟩
| {{IPA|/b/}}
| '''{{IPA|/p/}}'''
| {{IPA|/pʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨R r⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/r/}}'''
|-
| ⟨Rz rz⟩
| colspan="3" | '''{{IPA|/ʐ/}}'''
|-
| ⟨S s⟩
| {{IPA|/z/}}
| '''{{IPA|/s/}}'''
| {{IPA|/ɕ/}}
|-
| ⟨Ś ś⟩
| {{IPA|/ʑ/}}
| '''{{IPA|/ɕ/}}'''
| Always as ⟨s⟩
|-
| ⟨T t⟩
| {{IPA|/d/}}
| colspan="2" | '''{{IPA|/t/}}'''
|-
| ⟨W w⟩
| '''{{IPA|/v/}}'''
| {{IPA|/f/}}
| {{IPA|/vʲ/}}
|-
| ⟨Z z⟩
| '''{{IPA|/z/}}'''
| {{IPA|/s/}}
| {{IPA|/ʑ/}}
|-
| ⟨Ź ź⟩
| '''{{IPA|/ʑ/}}'''
| {{IPA|/ɕ/}}
| Always as ⟨z⟩
|}
''-V-'' in this context are all vowels except ⟨i⟩ and ⟨y⟩. In ''-iV-'' sequences, plosives are inserted with preceding {{IPA|/j/}} before vowels, but velars not (''Stamiesie'' {{IPA|/staˈmʲjɛɕɛ/}} "Cernelia").
== Sound changes ==
:''See [[Cernelian/Sound changes]]''

Latest revision as of 16:50, 24 October 2021

Consonants

Labial Dental Post-alveolar Alveo-palatal Velar
Plain Palatal Plain Palatal
Nasal /m/ /mʲ/ /n/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/
Plosive /p b/ /pʲ bʲ/ /t d/ /k ɡ/ /kʲ ɡʲ/
Affricate /t͡s d͡z/ /t͡ʂ d͡ʐ/ /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/
Fricative /f v/ /fʲ vʲ/ /s z/ /ʂ ʐ/ /ɕ ʑ/ /x/ /xʲ/
Tap /ɾ/
Approximant /l/ /j/ /w/

Like Polish, Cernelian exhibits final-obstruent devoicing that causes word-final voiced obstruents become devoiced (prów /pruf/ "flock"). Obstruents (plosives and fricatives), when voiced are unvoiced before unvoiced obstruents, while when unvoiced become voiced before voiced obstruents (/x/ has the voiced allophone [ɣ]).

Consonant structure

The maximal consonant structure in Cernelian is CCCVCC (C = consonants, V = vowels).

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close /i/ /ɨ/ /u/
Mid Plain /ɛ/ /ɔ/
Nasal /ɛ̃/ /ɔ̃/
Open /a/

Extreme northern dialects has phonemic vowel length, denoted by acute accent (ác /aːts/ "boat", íłmo "air, sky"). Standard Cernelian have ⟨ó⟩, but only for etymological reasons.

Cernelian reflects limited vowel harmony between the vowels -o- (back) and -e- (front), otherwise the Proto-Finnic vowel harmonies *o : *ö displaced by Cernelian o : e, and *u : *y become Proto-Cernelian yers *ъ and *ь that often deleted in some positions.

The nasal vowels become /ɛn, ɔn/ before plosives and affricates, /ɛm, ɔm/ before labials, /ɛŋ, ɔŋ/ before post-alveolars and velars, /ɛɲ, ɔɲ/ before alveo-palatals, and /ɛ, ɔ/ before l or ł and word-finally in the case of ę.

Consonant gradation

Like Finnish and Estonian, consonant gradation (involving lenition, Cernelian: sona, lit. "voicing", or lenicja) are frequent in Cernelian. However, it is not possible to predict the ending whose affected by gradation (weak grade), due to syllable structure changes. This is the gradation table:

Strong grade
(unaffected) 		Weak grade
(affected)
Plain Palatal Plain Palatal
k cz/c ∅/g ż/dz
t ć/ci ∅/d dź/dzi
p p/pi ∅/w w/wi
s/ch ś/si/sz ∅/z j/i/∅

The weak grades g, d, and w are used after nasal vowels (nom. pl. pięzo : dat. pl. pięsoję "people, suppletive plural of jęziemnię"). The nature of palatal weak grade of s varies: j are used intervocalically, i used after the rest of consonants, and ∅ (just succeeding vowels, i → y) only used after consonants c, cz, dż, l, sz, and ż. The exact history of the gradations are:

Proto-Finnic Proto-Cernelian Cernelian
Early Late
-kVb- -k-
-kVf-, -kjV -k- -č- -cz-
-kVbVf- -k- -c- -c-
-CgVb- -CC- -C-
-NgVb- -g-
-VbgVb-
(adjacent vowels) 		-V̄- -V-
-gVf- -g- -ž- -ż-
-CgVbVf- -g- -dz- -dz-
-pVb- -p-
-pVf-, -pVbVf-, -pjV- -p- -p- -p-, -piV-
-CbVb- -CC- -C-
-NbVb- -b-
-VbbVb-
(adjacent vowels) 		-V̄- -V-
-bVf-, -CbVbVf- -w- -v- -w-, -wiV-

The endings often affected by weak gradation include:

  • Nominative (including accusative and vocative) plurals of regular declensions (śció : sio "pig, pigs"), and locative, ablative, and instrumental plurals of most declensions (śció, siaso "pig, in the pigs")
  • 1st and 2nd person singular past tenses (jaka : jeżę "to share, I shared")
  • All of the conditional endings

Stress

Like Polish, Cernelian words are almost always stressed in penultimate (second-from-last) syllable. However, some conservative eastern and southern dialects influenced by Russian and Ukrainian, have unpredictable stress (sonò "word" vs. sòno "sauna").

  • Proto-Finnic *áivastàdak → jawostà vs. standard jawòsta "to sneeze"
  • Proto-Finnic *áutugas → ùtwo "blessed, wealthy" (same in standard patterns)

Note that Proto-Finnic stress is originally non-phonemic, with secondary stress existed in last non-final odd-numbered syllables.

Mobile paradigms

In such conservative dialects, there are numerous mobile paradigms, especially in verbs.

History (from *armastadak to romostà "to love")
  • Proto-Finnic:
Participles Other non-finite
Active *armastapa *armastanu Infinitive *armastadak
Passive *armastatapa *armastatu Verbal noun *armastama
Present Past Conditional Imperative
1st singular *armastan *armastoin *armastakcin *armastagon
2nd singular *armastat *armastoit *armastakcit *armastak
3rd singular *armastapi *armastoi *armastakci *armastasen
1st plural *armastakmak *armastoimak *armastakcimak *armastakadamak
2nd plural *armastaktak *armastoidak *armastakcidak *armastakata
3rd plural *armastabat *armastoi *armastakci *armastasen
Impersonal *armastaksen *armastatihen *armastadakcisen *armastatagasen
  • Early Proto-Cernelian:
Participles Other non-finite
Active *ármastapa *ármastanu Infinitive *armastā́ˀ
Passive *ármastatapa *ármastatu Verbal noun *ármastama
Present Past Conditional Imperative
1st singular *ármastan *ármastain *armastáˀšin *ármastān
2nd singular *ármastat *ármastait *armastáˀšit *ármastaˀ
3rd singular *ármastapi *ármastai *armastáˀši *ármastaˀen
1st plural *armastáˀmaˀ *ármastaimaˀ *armastáˀšimaˀ *armastákāmaˀ
2nd plural *armastáˀtaˀ *ármastajaˀ *armastáˀšjaˀ *ármastakata
3rd plural *armastā́t *ármastai *armastáˀši *ármastaˀen
Impersonal *armastáˀšen *ármastatiˀen *armastā́ˀšiˀen *armastátāˀen
  • Late Proto-Cernelian:
Participles Other non-finite
Active *ȍrmostopo *ȍrmostonъ Infinitive *ormostà
Passive *ȍrmostotopo *ȍrmostotъ Verbal noun *ȍrmostomo
Present Past Conditional Imperative
1st singular *ármastan *ármastain *armastáˀšin *ármastān
2nd singular *ármastat *ármastait *armastáˀšit *ármastaˀ
3rd singular *ármastapi *ármastai *armastáˀši *ármastaˀen
1st plural *armastáˀmaˀ *ármastaimaˀ *armastáˀšimaˀ *armastákāmaˀ
2nd plural *armastáˀtaˀ *ármastajaˀ *armastáˀšjaˀ *ármastakata
3rd plural *armastā́t *ármastai *armastáˀši *ármastaˀen
Impersonal *armastáˀšen *ármastatiˀen *armastā́ˀšiˀen *armastátāˀen

Orthography

The Cernelian orthography is written in Latin, and definitely same as that of Polish.

Vowels
Letter IPA value
⟨A a⟩ /a/
⟨Ą ą⟩ /ɔ̃/ (see above)
⟨E e⟩ /ɛ/
⟨Ę ę⟩ /ɛ̃/ (see above)
⟨I i⟩ /(ʲ)i/ (see below)
⟨O o⟩ /ɔ/
⟨Ó ó⟩ /u/
⟨U u⟩
⟨Y y⟩ /ɨ/
Consonant
Letter IPA value
Elsewhere Before -i- and -iV
Voiced Unvoiced
⟨B b⟩ /b/ /p/ /bʲ/
⟨C c⟩ /dz/ /ts/ /tɕ/
⟨Ć ć⟩ /d͡ʑ/ /t͡ɕ/ always as ⟨c⟩
⟨D d⟩ /d/ /t/ /d/
⟨Dź dź⟩ /d͡ʑ/ /t͡ɕ/ always as ⟨dz⟩
⟨F f⟩ /f/ /v/ /fʲ/
⟨G g⟩ /ɡ/ /k/ /ɡʲ/
⟨H h⟩ /ɣ/ /x/ /xʲ/
⟨J j⟩ /j/
⟨K k⟩ /ɡ/ /k/ /kʲ/
⟨L l⟩ /l/
⟨Ł ł⟩ /w/
⟨M m⟩ /m/ /mʲ/
⟨N n⟩ /n/ /ɲ/
⟨Ń ń⟩ /ɲ/ Always as ⟨n⟩
⟨P p⟩ /b/ /p/ /pʲ/
⟨R r⟩ /r/
⟨Rz rz⟩ /ʐ/
⟨S s⟩ /z/ /s/ /ɕ/
⟨Ś ś⟩ /ʑ/ /ɕ/ Always as ⟨s⟩
⟨T t⟩ /d/ /t/
⟨W w⟩ /v/ /f/ /vʲ/
⟨Z z⟩ /z/ /s/ /ʑ/
⟨Ź ź⟩ /ʑ/ /ɕ/ Always as ⟨z⟩

-V- in this context are all vowels except ⟨i⟩ and ⟨y⟩. In -iV- sequences, plosives are inserted with preceding /j/ before vowels, but velars not (Stamiesie /staˈmʲjɛɕɛ/ "Cernelia").

Sound changes

See Cernelian/Sound changes
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