User:Masako/Kalo: Difference between revisions

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= Introduction =
= introduction =


'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
* '''Kalo''' (taken from [[Wiktionary:caló|caló]]) is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession. The goal is to have around 1000 words.


'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any other [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.


= Phonology =
 
 
* Notable features:
:: Subject-Verb-Object
:: highly analytical grammar
:: invariance between word types
:: only 14 (base) sounds, 9 consonants, and 5 vowels
:: simple phonotactics, or syllable structure (C)V(N)
:: only ~1000 core words
:: easy-to-follow word compounding
 
= phonology =


'''Kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.
'''Kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.


== Consonants ==
=== alphabetical order ===
 
'''Kalo''' uses English alphabetical order: '''''a e i k l m n o p s t u w y'''''
 
== consonants ==


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
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|}
|}


== Vowels ==
== vowels ==


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|}
|}


=== Diphthongs ===
=== diphthongs ===


There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.
There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.


== Syllable Structure ==
== syllable structure ==
All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.
== phonotactics ==
A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.


== Allophony ==
All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.


The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
= syntax =
 
= Syntax =


: [[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial.  
: [[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial.  
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Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.


* '''wa toma''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
* '''wa toma''' - <small>1S consume</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
:
* '''o koma amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
* '''o pan toma''' - <small>DO food consume</small> - ''The bread is eaten.'' (OV)
 
== questions ==


The interrogative particle '''ma''' (taken from Chinese ([[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]) is used in conjunction with various nouns, adverbs, and adjectives to form specific questions.


=== non-polar questions ===


{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''ma''' - what; which
* '''ma ko''' - who, whom
* '''ma koyo''' - whose, of whom
* '''ma tenpo''' - when
{{col-break}}
* '''ma loka''' - where
* '''ma moto''' - how
* '''ma laka''' - how much, how many
* '''ma sapa''' - why
{{col-end}}


=== polar questions ===
= lexicon =


Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ma''' at the end of the sentence.
Words in '''Kalo''' tend to function in multiple roles. * elefen.org/vocabulo_fundal.html
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''wa wite le kasa'''
: <small>1S see PST house</small>
: ''I saw the house.''
{{col-break}}
* '''ni wite le kasa ma'''
: <small>2S see PST house Q</small>
: ''Did you see the house?''
{{col-end}}
 
= Nouns =
 
Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
 
== Pronouns ==
 
'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
!
! singular
! plural
! possessive
|-align=center
! 1st person
| '''wa'''<br>I; me
| '''walo'''<br>we; us
| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
|-align=center
! 2nd person
| '''ni'''<br>you
| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
|-align=center
! 3rd person
| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
|}
 
* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
 
* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''
 
== Gender ==
 
TBD
 
 
爸 / 媽
 
 
= Verbs =
 
Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles. There are three basic tenses in Kalo, past, present, and future. The simple present is not marked, the past is marked by '''le''' from the Chinese particle ([[wiktionary:了|了]]), and the future is marked by '''sa''' from the Arabic construction ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|-−
!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
|-
|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
|-
|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
|-
|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
|-
|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
|}
 
* '''wa kome le''' - <small>1s eat PST</small> - ''I ate.''
* '''aki koyo kome''' - <small>brother 3sg.GEN eat</small> - ''His brother eats/is eating.''
* '''nilo ne wite sa ko''' - <small>2pl NEG see FUT 3sg</small> - ''You all will not see her.''
 
 
 
 
== positional verbs ==
 
'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.
 
* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
 
== Conditionals ==
 
Uncertainty is marked by '''ki, kisa''', or '''kile'''. These are taken from Spanish ([[wiktionary:quizá|quizá]]) and used across the three basic tenses. It can also act as a subordinating conjunction, and conditional constructions, “''if, whether''”. It is also used to express possibility or probability.
 
* '''tela wa ki ni wite ko''' - <small>tell 1s if 2s see 3s</small> - Tell me if you can see her.
* '''ki ni amo yawe te pu yuma ne inpo'''  - <small>if 2sg like weather of today NEG important</small> - Whether you like today’s weather does not matter. 
* '''kisa pu yuma yuwa''' - <small>maybe this day rain</small> - It may rain (later) today.
== Prepositions ==
 
* en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar#Prepositions
 
= Number =
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
|+
|-
! Kalo
! number
! English
! Kalo
! number
! English
|-
| '''sunya''' || 0 || zero || '''na''' || 7 || seven
|-
| '''wa''' || 1 || one || '''pa''' || 8 || eight
|-
| '''li''' || 2 || two || '''nun''' || 9 || nine
|-
| '''san''' || 3 || three || '''ye''' || 10 || ten
|-
| '''si''' || 4 || four || '''aku''' / '''-ku''' || 100 || (one) hundred
|-
| '''pen''' || 5 || five || '''mila''' || 1000 || (one) thousand
|-
| '''we''' || 6 || six  || '' '' || '' '' || '' ''
|}
 
When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
 
* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
: ''She had two houses.''
 
* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
: ''I see four men.''
 
== Higher Numbers ==
 
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five
 
= Lexicon =
 
Words in '''Kalo''' tend to function in multiple roles. The lexicon is arranged to include those roles within each entry. What follows is the working lexicon for [[Kalo]].


{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
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{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}


== particles ==


== a ==
* '''kai''' - should; ought to; need to; have to (ZHO [[Wiktionary:該#Definitions|該]])
:: '''ni kai ila''' - <small>2s should go</small> - ''You should leave.''
* '''ke''' - number marker (ZHO [[Wiktionary:個#Definitions|個]])
* '''kisa''' - maybe; perhaps; possibly (SPA [[Wiktionary:quizá|quizá]])
* '''le''' - past tense marker [PST] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:了#Definitions|了]])
:: '''wa toma le''' - <small>1s consume PST</small> - ''I ate.''
* '''ma''' - what; which; question marker [Q] (ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:ما#Pronoun|ما]]/[[wiktionary:嗎#Definitions|嗎]])
* '''ne''' - no; not; negative; neither (ENG [[Wiktionary:nay#English|nay]])
* '''o''' - direct object marker [DO] (JPN [[Wiktionary:を#Particle|を]])
* '''sa''' - future tense marker [FUT] (ARA [[Wiktionary:س#Particle|سَـ]])
:: '''nilo ne wite sa ko''' - <small>2pl NEG see FUT 3sg</small> - ''You all will not see her.''
* '''se''' - reflexive marker [REFL] (SPA [[Wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]])
:: '''ko se lawa le''' - <small>3s REFL wash PST</small> - ''She bathed herself.''


* '''aku''' [-'''ku'''] (JPN [[wiktionary:ひゃく|ひゃく]]) - ''num'' - hundred; 100 | ''n'' - many; much; a lot
== determiners ==
* '''amo''' (SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]) - ''v'' - like; love; adore | ''n'' - affection; adoration; love
* '''ante''' (SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]]) - ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead
* '''asi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]) - ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore
* '''ate''' (ARA [[wiktionary:عادي|عادي]]) - ''v'' - be normal; usual; customary; habitual | ''n'' habit; custom
* '''awa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:أو#Arabic|أو]]) - ''part'' - either; or; other
* '''ayo''' (ARA [[wiktionary:أي#Arabic|أي]]) - ''pro'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]


== e ==
* '''pu''' - this; these (TUR [[Wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]])
* '''su''' - that; those (TUR [[Wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]])


* '''e''' (SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Conjunction_24|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Pronunciation_2|和]]) - ''part'' - and; also; too
== pronouns ==


== i ==
* '''wa''' - I; me [1sg] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:我|我]])
* '''ni''' - you [2sg] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:你|你]])
* '''ko''' - person; individual; adult / he; she [3sg] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:個|個]])
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever; any/something [INDEF] (ARA [[Wiktionary:أي|أي]])


* '''ila''' (SPA [[wiktionary:إلى#Etymology_1|إلى]]) - ''prep'' - to; toward; until; near | ''v'' - to move toward; go
=== possession ===


== k ==
* Possession is shown with the particle '''te''' - ''of; from'', or with the suffix '''-yo''' - ''have; possess''
* Plurality is marked with the suffix '''-lo''' - ''a pile''


* '''kan''' or '''kana''' (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:كان#Arabic|كان]]/[[wiktionary:כן#Hebrew|כן]]) - ''v'' - be; exist; live; occur | ''n'' - existence | ''part'' - yes; thus
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''kasalo te ko'''  
: <small>house-PL of 3sg</small>
: ''His homes''
{{col-break}}
* '''kasa te walo'''  
: <small>house of 1sg-PL</small>
: ''Our home''
{{col-break}}
* '''ipin wayo'''
: <small>child 1sg.POSS</small>
: ''my child''
{{col-break}}
* '''pu kana te kolo'''  
: <small>this COP of 3pl</small>
: ''this is theirs''
{{col-end}}


* '''kisa''' (SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]) - ''part'' - perhaps; maybe [also '''ki''' - if; '''kile''' - maybe 'it was']
== conjunctions ==


* '''kono''' (SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]) - ''v'' - know; be aware of; understand; recognize | ''n'' - knowledge; awareness
* '''asi''' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore (SPA [[Wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]])
* '''awa''' - or; either; other (ARA [[Wiktionary:أو|أو]])
* '''e''' - and; also; too; as well (SPA/ZHO [[Wiktionary:e#Conjunction_30|e]]/[[Wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]])
* '''ita''' - if; whether (ARA [[Wiktionary:إذا|إذا]])
* '''me''' - but; however; although; yet (FRE [[Wiktionary:mais#French|mais]])


* '''kula''' (ARA [[wiktionary:كل|كل]]) - ''v'' - be complete; whole | ''n'' - all; entire; every; each
== common verbs ==


* '''kun''' (SPA [[wiktionary:con#Spanish|con]]/[[wiktionary:跟#Definitions|跟]]) - ''prep'' - with; by; via | ''v'' - use; employ
* '''kan(a)''' - yes; be; exist; live; occur; thus (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:كان#Arabic|كان]]/[[wiktionary:כן#Hebrew|כן]])
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause; happen (ENG [[Wiktionary:make#English|make]])
* '''pana''' - become; come from; derive from (HIN [[Wiktionary:बनना|बनना]])
* '''pote''' - be able; can; possible; potential (SPA [[Wiktionary:poder#Spanish|poder]])
* '''suya(u)'''  - need; require; necessity; a must (ZHO [[wiktionary:需要#Mandarin|需要]])
* '''wan''' - want; desire; wish (for) (ENG [[wiktionary:want#English|want]])
* '''yo''' - have; possess (ZHO [[Wiktionary:有|有]])


=== basic movements ===


kai v should; ought to; need to; have to 該 ZHO
* arrive; come (back); enter
kasa n / v house; building / live in; dwell casa SPA
* depart; leave; exit; go; travel; walk
kate n / v writing; letters; mark; draw; carve خط ARA
* fall
ke part number marker 个 ZHO
* fly
kipu n / v stop; halt; cease; pause; discontinue وقف ARA
* follow
ko n / pro person; individual; adult / he; she [3sg] 個 ZHO
* jump
koyo part whose; of who 個 有 ZHO
* raise; rise; lift
kute v listen; hear écouter FRE
* roll
* run
* sit
* stand; stay
* stop
* swim


== l ==
=== thought ===


* '''lana''' (HIN [[wiktionary:रहना|रहना]]) - ''v'' - remain; stay (still); stand; continue
* believe
* '''loka''' (SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]]) - ''n'' - place; location; point; spot
* decide
* dream
* forget
* know (a fact)
* know, be acquainted with
* learn
* make a mistake, err
* remember
* think
* understand, comprehend


== quantity ==


* '''laka''' - count; number; enumerate; numeral; digit; amount; sum (ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]])
* '''lo''' - plural marker [PL] (ZHO [[wiktionary:摞|摞]])
* '''nupa''' - enough; sufficient; appropriate (ENG [[wiktionary:enough|enough]])


laka n numeral; digit; number; amount; sum رقم ARA
=== numbers ===
lata n box; bucket; basket; container; vessel lata SPA
le part past tense marker [PST] 了 ZHO
li num two; double; duo 两 ZHO
lo part plural marker [PL] 摞 ZHO
luna n moon; satelite; orbiting body; month luna SPA


lapa n / v play; amuse; toy; enjoy لعب ARA
* '''nulu''' - zero; 0; empty; nothing (SPA [[wiktionary:nulo#Spanish|nulo]])
* '''wa''' - one; 1; single; singular; alone (ARA [[wiktionary:واحد#Arabic|واحد]])
* '''li''' - two; 2; double; duo (ZHO [[wiktionary:两|两]])
* '''san''' - three; 3; triple (ZHO [[wiktionary:三|三]])
* '''si'''  - four; 4 (ZHO [[wiktionary:四|四]])
* '''pen''' - five; 5 (ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε|πέντε]])
* '''we'''  - six; 6 (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]])
* '''na'''  - seven; 7 (JPN [[wiktionary:なな|なな]])
* '''pa'''  - eight; 8 (ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]])
* '''nun''' - nine; 9 (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]])
* '''ye'''  - 10; ten (KOR [[wiktionary:열|열]])
* '''aku/-ku''' - hundred; 100; many; much; a lot (JPN [[wiktionary:ひゃく|ひゃく]])
* '''mila''' - thousand; 1000 (SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]])


luwi n / v rain; precipitation lluvia SPA
==== higher numbers ====


== m ==
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' ('''sanwepen''') - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five


* '''ma''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Definitions|嗎]]) - ''part'' - what; which; question marker [Q]
== time ==
* '''maka''' (ENG [[wiktionary:make#English|make]]) - ''v'' - make; do; cause; happen | ''n'' - action; reason; event
* '''maso''' (SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]]) - ''v'' - again; add; repeat; layer | ''n'' - more; addition; layer
* '''me''' (FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]) - ''part'' - but; however; although
* '''meno''' (FRE [[wiktionary:menos#Spanish|menos]]) - ''v'' - less; subtract; minus | ''n'' less; fewer; subtraction
* '''mente''' (SPA [[wiktionary:mente#Spanish|mente]]) - ''v'' - think; ponder; consider | ''n'' - thought; consideration; mind; mental state
* '''moto''' (SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]]) - ''n'' - manner; method; how; way; mood


* '''anyo''' - year; 365 days (SPA [[wiktionary:año#Spanish|año]])
* '''note''' - night; darkness (SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]])
* '''saman''' - time; age; period; passing of events (ARA/HIN [[wiktionary:زمن|زمن]]/[[wiktionary:समय|समय]])
* '''yuma''' - day; daylight; 24 hour period (ARA [[wiktionary:يوم|يوم]])


== location words ==


* '''ante''' - before; in front; forward; ahead; facing (SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]])
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; go; walk; travel; leave (ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]/SPA [[wiktionary:ir#Spanish|ir]])
* '''loka''' - place; location; point; spot (SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]])
* '''nai''' - in(side); interior; during; among (JPN [[wiktionary:内#Japanese|内]])
* '''po''' - by; for; through; across; about (SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]/[[wiktionary:para#Spanish|para]])
* '''te''' - of; from; about (SPA [[wiktionary:de#Spanish|de]]/ZHO [[wiktionary:的#Etymology_2|的]])
* '''wela''' - out(side); exterior (SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]])
* '''yu''' - in; at; to; by; than; out of (ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Pronunciation_1|於/于]])


== basic adjectives ==


* '''pula''' - bad; spoiled; broken; to break down; wicked; evil (HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]])
:: '''pula maso''' - "worse" >> '''pula ta''' - "worst"
* '''tipa/tupa''' - good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:طيب#Etymology_1|طيب]]/[[wiktionary:טוב#Etymology_1|טוב]])
:: '''tipa maso''' - "better" >> '''tipa ta''' - "best"




mala n woman; female; wife امرأة ARA
mila num thousand; 1000 mil SPA
muki n / v be important; matter / issue مهم ARA
muna n moon; month moon ENG


== n ==


* '''nai''' (JPN [[wiktionary:内#Japanese|内]]) - ''prep'' - inside; within; during; central; middle; center [locative and temporal]
== people ==


* '''nesi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]) - ''v'' - need; require | ''n'' - necessity; a must
=== family ===


Because of the ubiquity of a bilabial plosive and nasal being used for "father" and "mother" words respectively, the words used in '''Kalo''' sound, and look very familiar and possibly derived from any one of numerous languages. However, this section will explain how the '''Kalo''' words came to be, and indicate that all other words are gender neutral, unless modified by the gender affixes.


na num seven なな JPN
* '''apa''' - father; man; husband ('''-pa''' masculine gender)
nalu n / v succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into なる JPN
: Mandarin: [[Wiktionary:爸#Chinese|爸]] /pa˥˩/
nama v sleep; rest; relax نام ARA
: Arabic: [[Wiktionary:أب#Arabic|أب]] /ʔab/
nano n man; male 男 ZHO
: Spanish: [[Wiktionary:padre#Spanish|padre]] /ˈpadɾe/
naya v be new; fresh; young नया HIN
: English: [[Wiktionary:papa#English|papa]] /ˈpɑː.pə/
ne part no; not; none; negative [NEG] nay ENG
: Hindi: [[Wiktionary:पिता#Hindi|पिता]] /pɪ.t̪ɑː/
ni pro you [2sg] 你 ZHO
note n night; darkness noche SPA
nun num nine h₁néwn̥ PIE


== o ==
* '''uma''' - mother; woman; wife ('''-ma''' feminine gender)
: Mandarin: [[Wiktionary:媽#Chinese|媽]] /ma˥/
: Arabic: [[Wiktionary:أم#Etymology_2|أم]] /ʔumm/
: Spanish: [[Wiktionary:madre#Spanish|madre]] /ˈma.ð̞ɾe/
: English: [[Wiktionary:mama#English|mama]] /ˈmɑmə/
: Hindi: [[Wiktionary:माता#Hindi|माता]] /mɑː.t̪ɑː/


* '''ola''' (SPA [[wiktionary:hola#Spanish|hola]]) - ''part'' - hello; goodbye | ''v'' - greet
=== other terms ===


* '''ami''' - friend; acquaintance; colleague (SPA [[Wiktionary:amigo#Spanish|amigo/a]])
* '''amo''' - like; love; adore / affection; adoration; love (SPA [[Wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]])
* '''(i)pin''' - child; offspring; kid; daughter; son (ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]])
:: '''pinama''' - "daughter; niece" / '''pinapa''' - "son; nephew"
* '''pama''' - parent; mother; father ('''apa''' + '''uma''')
* '''(s)aki''' - sibling; cousin; shared (grand)parents (ARA [[wiktionary:شقيق|شقيق]]/[[wiktionary:أخ|أخ]])
:: '''akima''' - "sister; female cousin" / '''akipa''' - "brother; male cousin"
* '''sawa''' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate; partner (ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]])
* '''waya''' - adult; mature thing / grow; mature; develop (HIN [[Wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]])


o part direct object marker [DO] を JPN
----
oma n mother; female parent Oma GER
opa n father; male parent Opa GER


== p ==
* adult
* aunt
* baby
* boy
* brother
* child
* cousin
* daughter
* divorce
* enemy
* family
* father
* friend
* girl
* granddaughter
* grandfather
* grandmother
* grandson
* husband
* in-law
* man
* marriage
* mother
* Mr., sir, gentleman, lord
* Mrs., Miss, Ms., ma’am, lady
* name
* nephew
* niece
* person
* sister
* son
* teenager
* uncle
* wife
* woman


* '''po''' (SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]/[[wiktionary:para#Spanish|para]]) - ''prep'' - for; by; through; because | ''v'' - be about; move across
== food ==
* '''poka''' (SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]]) - ''v'' - (be) small; tiny; few; some; little
* '''pote''' (SPA [[wiktionary:poder#Spanish|poder]]) - ''v'' - be able to; can | ''n'' - ability; capability
* '''pu''' (TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]) - ''part'' - this; these [proximal or medial]
* '''pula''' (HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]]) - ''v'' - (be) bad; spoiled; broken; to break down; wicked; evil


* '''pan''' - food; bread; sustenance (SPA [[Wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/ZHO [[Wiktionary:飯#Definitions|飯]])
* '''sosa''' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing (ENG [[Wiktionary:sauce|sauce]])
* '''wino''' - alcohol; beer; wine; drink ~ (SPA [[Wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]])
* '''toma''' - consume; eat; drink (SPA [[Wiktionary:tomar#Spanish|tomar]])


= phrases =


pa num eight 八 ZHO
* wikitravel.org/en/Category:Phrasebooks
pala n word; morpheme; lexeme palabra SPA
:
pan n food; bread; sustenance 饭 / pan ZHO / SPA
:
pen num five πέντε ELL
:
pesi n fish; swim pez SPA
* Hello - '''salama''' (''formal'')
pina n child; offspring; kid ابن ARA
:: '''ola''' (''informal'')
pone v to put, to place, to set poner SPA
pusu part both; "this and that" bu + şu TUR
 
== s ==
 
* '''simi''' (ENG/SPA [[wiktionary:similar|similar]]) - ''v'' - resemble; similar; like
* '''solo''' (SPA [[wiktionary:solo#Spanish|solo]]) - ''v'' - alone; solitary; only; unique
* '''su''' (TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]) - ''part'' - that; those [medial or distal]
* '''suku''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:足夠|足夠]]) - ''v'' - be enough; adequate; sufficient; ample
 
 
 
sa part future tense marker [FUT] سَـ ARA
saka/na n / v hot; heat; warm(th); fire سخن ARA
salama n / v peace; calm; tranquility; quiet / be peaceful; be calm سلم ARA
san num three; triple 三 ZHO
sana n year; 365 days سنة ARA
sapa n reason; motive; cause سبب ARA
sawa n spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate زوج ARA
se part each [other]; mutually; reciprocal 서로 KOR
semana n week semana SPA
si num four 四 ZHO
sima n / v noun; name; be called اسم ARA
siya prep / v under; below; down 下 ZHO
sosa n juice; sauce; gravy; dressing sauce ENG
sunya num zero; empty; nothing शून्य HIN
 
== t ==
 
* '''ta''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:大#Definitions|大]]) - ''v'' - (be) big; large; heavy; long; tall | ''part'' very (much/many); extremely
* '''te''' (SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Spanish|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Etymology_2|的]]) - ''prep'' - of; from
* '''tela''' or '''talo''' (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/talō|del]]) - ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell | ''n'' - language; discussion; conversation
 
* '''tenpo''' (SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]]) - ''n'' - time; hour; period; age
 
 
* '''tipa''' or '''tupa''' (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:طيب#Etymology_1|طيب]]/[[wiktionary:טוב#Etymology_1|טוב]]) - ''v'' - (be) good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
* '''toma''' (SPA [[wiktionary:tomar#Spanish|tomar]]) - ''v'' - eat; drink; ingest | ''n'' - eating; drinking
 
 
 
tanka v / part thank; show appreciation; express gratitude thank / danke ENG / GER
tapo n / v destruction; damage; wreck; break; destroy 打破 ZHO
tipa n / v good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK طيب ARA
tiya n aunt/uncle tía SPA
tonpa n sibling; compatriot; friend 同胞 ZHO
tonye part same 同一 ZHO
tusu n / v to discern, to find out, to learn 读书 ARA
 
== u ==
 
== w ==
 
* '''wa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:واحد#Arabic|واحد]]) - ''num'' - one; single; singular; alone
* '''wa''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:我|我]]) - ''pro'' - I; me [1sg]
* '''wan''' (ENG [[wiktionary:want#English|want]]) - ''v'' - want; desire; wish (for) | ''n'' - desire; want
* '''waya''' (HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]]) - ''v'' - grow; mature; develop | ''n'' - adult; mature thing
* '''we''' (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]]) - ''num'' - six; 6
* '''weko''' (SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]]) - ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port
 
 


wela prep / v outside; exterior; surface fuera SPA
* How are you? - '''moto ni ma?'''
wenta n / v air; wind; void; essence; spirit viento SPA
wino n / v alcohol; beer; wine; drink ~ vino SPA
wite v look; see; observe; watch; read weyd PIE


== y ==
* Please (used to make a polite request) - '''po tipa''' ("for good")


* '''ya''' (ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]]) - ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
* Thank you (very much) - '''tanka''' ('''ta''')
* '''yame''' (ARA [[wiktionary:جمع#Arabic|جمع]]) - ''v'' - gather; group; collect | ''n'' - gathering; group; collection; set
* '''yati''' (ARA [[wiktionary:يد#Arabic|يد]]) - ''n'' - arm, hand, tactile organ
* '''ye''' (KOR [[wiktionary:열|열]]) - ''num'' - 10; ten
* '''yeko''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以後]]) - ''prep'' - after; afterward(s); later | ''n'' - back; behind; rear
* '''yo''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Chinese|有]]) - ''v'' - have; possess; hold
* '''yu''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Etymology|於]]) - ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of [strictly locative]
* '''yuma''' (ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]]) - ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period


== zzz ==
* Yes - '''kan(a)''' (it is)


* No - '''ne'''


92 even
* Maybe - '''kisa'''
94 Adjectives
95
96 the, a (technically articles)
97 this
98 that
99 good
100 bad
101 all
102 some
103 no
104 any
105 many
106 few
107 most
108 other
109 same
110 different
111 enough
112 one
113 two
114 a few
115 first
116 next
117 last (meaning “past”, e.g. “last Friday”)
118 last (meaning “final”)
119 easy
120 hard
121 early
122 late
123 important
124 interesting
125 fun
126 boring
127 beautiful
128 big
129 small
130 happy
131 sad
132 busy
133 excited
134 tired
135 ready
136 favorite
137 new
138 right (meaning “correct”)
139 wrong
140 true
141 Pronouns
142
143 I / me / my
144
145 I
146 you
147 she
148 he
149 it
150 we
151 you (plural)
152 they
153 Nouns
154
155
156
157 everything
158 something
159 nothing
160 everyone
161 someone
162 no one
163 (name of the language you’re studying)
164 English
165 thing
166 person
167 place
168 time (as in “a long time”)
169 time (as in “I did it 3 times”)
170 friend
171 woman
172 man
173 money
174 country
175 (name of your home country)
176 city
177 language
178 word
179 food
180 house
181 store
182 office
183 company
184 manager
185 coworker
186 job
187 work (as in “I have a lot of work to do”)
188 problem
189 question
190 idea
191 life
192 world
193 day
194 year
195 week
196 month
197 hour
198 mother, father, parent
199 daughter, son, child
200 wife, husband
201 girlfriend, boyfriend
202 More Verbs
203
204 work (as in a person working)
205 work (meaning “to function”, e.g. “the TV works”)
206 see
207 use
208 should
209 believe
210 practice
211 seem
212 come
213 leave
214 return
215 give
216 take
217 bring
218 look for
219 find
220 get (meaning “obtain”)
221 receive
222 buy
223 try
224 start
225 stop (doing something)
226 finish
227 continue
228 wake up
229 get up
230 eat
231 eat breakfast (in several languages, this is a verb)
232 eat lunch
233 eat dinner
234 happen
235 feel
236 create (aka “make”)
237 cause (aka “make”)
238 meet (meeting someone for the first time)
239 meet (meaning “to bump into”)
240 meet (an arranged meeting)
241 ask (a question)
242 ask for (aka “request”)
243 wonder
244 reply
245 mean
246 read
247 write
248 listen
249 hear
250 remember
251 forget
252 choose
253 decide
254 be born
255 die
256 kill
257 live
258 stay
259 change
260 help
261 send
262 study
263 improve
264 hope
265 care
266 Phrases
267
268 hello
269 goodbye
270 thank you
271 you’re welcome
272 excuse me (to get someone’s attention)
273 sorry
274 it’s fine (response to an apology)
275 please
276 yes
277 no
278 okay
279 My name is
280 What’s your name?
281 Nice to meet you.
282 How are you?
283 I’m doing well, how about you?
284 Sorry? / What? (if you didn’t hear something)
285 How do you say ______?
286 What does ______ mean?
287 I don’t understand.
288 Could you repeat that?
289 Could you speak more slowly, please?
290 Well (as in “well, I think…”)
291 Really?
292 I guess that
293 It’s hot. (talking about the weather)
294 It’s cold. (talking about the weather)

Latest revision as of 12:47, 30 December 2021

introduction

  • Kalo (taken from caló) is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession. The goal is to have around 1000 words.



  • Notable features:
Subject-Verb-Object
highly analytical grammar
invariance between word types
only 14 (base) sounds, 9 consonants, and 5 vowels
simple phonotactics, or syllable structure (C)V(N)
only ~1000 core words
easy-to-follow word compounding

phonology

Kalo has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.

alphabetical order

Kalo uses English alphabetical order: a e i k l m n o p s t u w y

consonants

Labial Coronal Dorsal
Nasal m n
Plosive p t k
Fricative s
Approximant w l j (y)

vowels

Front Back
Close i u
Mid e o
Open a

diphthongs

There are two diphthongs [ai̯] ai, and [au̯] au. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.

syllable structure

All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.

syntax

Classical Arabic is primarily VSO, but MSA (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be SVO, favoring full agreement over partial.
Chinese is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb.
Spanish unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable.
English word order is almost exclusively SVO.
Hindi is primarily an SOV language.

Based on the above information about the main source languages for Kalo, it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.

  • wa toma - 1S consume - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o pan toma - DO food consume - The bread is eaten. (OV)



lexicon

Words in Kalo tend to function in multiple roles. * elefen.org/vocabulo_fundal.html

  • ARA - Arabic
  • ELL - Greek
  • ENG - English
  • FRE - French
  • GER - German
  • HEB - Hebrew
  • HIN - Hindi
  • JPN - Japanese
  • KOR - Korean
  • PIE - Proto-Indo-European
  • SPA - Spanish
  • TUR - Turkish
  • ZHO - Mandarin
  • adj - adjective
  • n - noun
  • num - number/numeral
  • part - particle
  • prep - preposition
  • pro - pronoun
  • v - verb


particles

  • kai - should; ought to; need to; have to (ZHO 該)
ni kai ila - 2s should go - You should leave.
  • ke - number marker (ZHO 個)
  • kisa - maybe; perhaps; possibly (SPA quizá)
  • le - past tense marker [PST] (ZHO 了)
wa toma le - 1s consume PST - I ate.
  • ma - what; which; question marker [Q] (ARA/ZHO ما/嗎)
  • ne - no; not; negative; neither (ENG nay)
  • o - direct object marker [DO] (JPN を)
  • sa - future tense marker [FUT] (ARA سَـ)
nilo ne wite sa ko - 2pl NEG see FUT 3sg - You all will not see her.
  • se - reflexive marker [REFL] (SPA se)
ko se lawa le - 3s REFL wash PST - She bathed herself.

determiners

  • pu - this; these (TUR bu)
  • su - that; those (TUR şu)

pronouns

  • wa - I; me [1sg] (ZHO 我)
  • ni - you [2sg] (ZHO 你)
  • ko - person; individual; adult / he; she [3sg] (ZHO 個)
  • ayo - whichever; whatever; any/something [INDEF] (ARA أي)

possession

  • Possession is shown with the particle te - of; from, or with the suffix -yo - have; possess
  • Plurality is marked with the suffix -lo - a pile
  • kasalo te ko
house-PL of 3sg
His homes
  • kasa te walo
house of 1sg-PL
Our home
  • ipin wayo
child 1sg.POSS
my child
  • pu kana te kolo
this COP of 3pl
this is theirs


conjunctions

  • asi - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore (SPA así)
  • awa - or; either; other (ARA أو)
  • e - and; also; too; as well (SPA/ZHO e/和)
  • ita - if; whether (ARA إذا)
  • me - but; however; although; yet (FRE mais)

common verbs

  • kan(a) - yes; be; exist; live; occur; thus (ARA/HEB كان/כן)
  • maka - do; make; cause; happen (ENG make)
  • pana - become; come from; derive from (HIN बनना)
  • pote - be able; can; possible; potential (SPA poder)
  • suya(u) - need; require; necessity; a must (ZHO 需要)
  • wan - want; desire; wish (for) (ENG want)
  • yo - have; possess (ZHO 有)

basic movements

  • arrive; come (back); enter
  • depart; leave; exit; go; travel; walk
  • fall
  • fly
  • follow
  • jump
  • raise; rise; lift
  • roll
  • run
  • sit
  • stand; stay
  • stop
  • swim

thought

  • believe
  • decide
  • dream
  • forget
  • know (a fact)
  • know, be acquainted with
  • learn
  • make a mistake, err
  • remember
  • think
  • understand, comprehend

quantity

  • laka - count; number; enumerate; numeral; digit; amount; sum (ARA رقم)
  • lo - plural marker [PL] (ZHO 摞)
  • nupa - enough; sufficient; appropriate (ENG enough)

numbers

  • nulu - zero; 0; empty; nothing (SPA nulo)
  • wa - one; 1; single; singular; alone (ARA واحد)
  • li - two; 2; double; duo (ZHO 两)
  • san - three; 3; triple (ZHO 三)
  • si - four; 4 (ZHO 四)
  • pen - five; 5 (ELL πέντε)
  • we - six; 6 (PIE swéḱs)
  • na - seven; 7 (JPN なな)
  • pa - eight; 8 (ZHO 八)
  • nun - nine; 9 (PIE h₁néwn̥)
  • ye - 10; ten (KOR 열)
  • aku/-ku - hundred; 100; many; much; a lot (JPN ひゃく)
  • mila - thousand; 1000 (SPA mil)

higher numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen (sanwepen) - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five

time

  • anyo - year; 365 days (SPA año)
  • note - night; darkness (SPA noche)
  • saman - time; age; period; passing of events (ARA/HIN زمن/समय)
  • yuma - day; daylight; 24 hour period (ARA يوم)

location words

  • ante - before; in front; forward; ahead; facing (SPA ante)
  • ila - be toward; at; go; walk; travel; leave (ARA إلى/SPA ir)
  • loka - place; location; point; spot (SPA local)
  • nai - in(side); interior; during; among (JPN 内)
  • po - by; for; through; across; about (SPA por/para)
  • te - of; from; about (SPA de/ZHO 的)
  • wela - out(side); exterior (SPA fuera)
  • yu - in; at; to; by; than; out of (ZHO 於/于)

basic adjectives

  • pula - bad; spoiled; broken; to break down; wicked; evil (HIN बुरा)
pula maso - "worse" >> pula ta - "worst"
  • tipa/tupa - good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK (ARA/HEB طيب/טוב)
tipa maso - "better" >> tipa ta - "best"



people

family

Because of the ubiquity of a bilabial plosive and nasal being used for "father" and "mother" words respectively, the words used in Kalo sound, and look very familiar and possibly derived from any one of numerous languages. However, this section will explain how the Kalo words came to be, and indicate that all other words are gender neutral, unless modified by the gender affixes.

  • apa - father; man; husband (-pa masculine gender)
Mandarin: 爸 /pa˥˩/
Arabic: أب /ʔab/
Spanish: padre /ˈpadɾe/
English: papa /ˈpɑː.pə/
Hindi: पिता /pɪ.t̪ɑː/
  • uma - mother; woman; wife (-ma feminine gender)
Mandarin: 媽 /ma˥/
Arabic: أم /ʔumm/
Spanish: madre /ˈma.ð̞ɾe/
English: mama /ˈmɑmə/
Hindi: माता /mɑː.t̪ɑː/

other terms

  • ami - friend; acquaintance; colleague (SPA amigo/a)
  • amo - like; love; adore / affection; adoration; love (SPA amor)
  • (i)pin - child; offspring; kid; daughter; son (ARA ابن)
pinama - "daughter; niece" / pinapa - "son; nephew"
  • pama - parent; mother; father (apa + uma)
  • (s)aki - sibling; cousin; shared (grand)parents (ARA شقيق/أخ)
akima - "sister; female cousin" / akipa - "brother; male cousin"
  • sawa - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate; partner (ARA زوج)
  • waya - adult; mature thing / grow; mature; develop (HIN वयस्क)
  • adult
  • aunt
  • baby
  • boy
  • brother
  • child
  • cousin
  • daughter
  • divorce
  • enemy
  • family
  • father
  • friend
  • girl
  • granddaughter
  • grandfather
  • grandmother
  • grandson
  • husband
  • in-law
  • man
  • marriage
  • mother
  • Mr., sir, gentleman, lord
  • Mrs., Miss, Ms., ma’am, lady
  • name
  • nephew
  • niece
  • person
  • sister
  • son
  • teenager
  • uncle
  • wife
  • woman

food

  • pan - food; bread; sustenance (SPA pan/ZHO 飯)
  • sosa - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing (ENG sauce)
  • wino - alcohol; beer; wine; drink ~ (SPA vino)
  • toma - consume; eat; drink (SPA tomar)

phrases

  • wikitravel.org/en/Category:Phrasebooks
  • Hello - salama (formal)
ola (informal)
  • How are you? - moto ni ma?
  • Please (used to make a polite request) - po tipa ("for good")
  • Thank you (very much) - tanka (ta)
  • Yes - kan(a) (it is)
  • No - ne
  • Maybe - kisa
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