User:Masako/Kalo: Difference between revisions

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= Introduction =
= introduction =


'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
* '''Kalo''' (taken from [[Wiktionary:caló|caló]]) is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession. The goal is to have around 1000 words.


'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any other [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.


= Phonology =
 
 
* Notable features:
:: Subject-Verb-Object
:: highly analytical grammar
:: invariance between word types
:: only 14 (base) sounds, 9 consonants, and 5 vowels
:: simple phonotactics, or syllable structure (C)V(N)
:: only ~1000 core words
:: easy-to-follow word compounding
 
= phonology =


'''Kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.
'''Kalo''' has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.


== Consonants ==
=== alphabetical order ===
 
'''Kalo''' uses English alphabetical order: '''''a e i k l m n o p s t u w y'''''
 
== consonants ==


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
Line 38: Line 52:
|}
|}


== Vowels ==
== vowels ==


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|}
|}


=== Diphthongs ===
=== diphthongs ===


There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.
There are two diphthongs [ai̯] '''ai''', and [au̯] '''au'''. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.


== Syllable Structure ==
== syllable structure ==
All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.
== phonotactics ==
A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.
 
== Syllables ==
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|-−
! a || ka || sa || ta || na || pa || ma || ya || la || wa
|-
! i || ki || si || ti || ni || pi || mi ||  || li || wi
|-
! u || ku || su || tu || nu || pu || mu || yu || lu ||
|-
! e || ke || se || te || ne || pe || me || ye || le || we
|-
! o || ko || so || to || no || po || mo || yo || lo ||
|}


All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.


== Allophony ==
= syntax =


The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
: [[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial.  
 
: [[wp:Chinese_grammar|Chinese]] is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb.  
= Syntax =
: [[wp:Spanish_grammar|Spanish]] unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable.  
 
: [[wp:English_grammar|English]] word order is almost exclusively SVO.  
[[wp:Classical_Arabic|Classical Arabic]] is primarily [[wp:Verb–subject–object|VSO]], but [[wp:Modern_Standard_Arabic|MSA]] (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be [[wp:Subject–verb–object|SVO]], favoring full agreement over partial. [[wp:Chinese_grammar|Chinese]] is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb. [[wp:Spanish_grammar|Spanish]] unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable. [[wp:English_grammar|English]] word order is almost exclusively SVO. [[wp:Hindustani_grammar|Hindi]] is primarily an SOV language.
: [[wp:Hindustani_grammar|Hindi]] is primarily an SOV language.


Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
Based on the above information about the main source languages for '''Kalo''', it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.


* '''wa toma''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
* '''wa toma''' - <small>1S consume</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
:
* '''o koma amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
* '''o pan toma''' - <small>DO food consume</small> - ''The bread is eaten.'' (OV)


== Conditionals ==


TBD


== questions ==


The interrogative particle '''ma''' (taken from Chinese ([[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]) is used in conjunction with various nouns, adverbs, and adjectives to form specific questions.
= lexicon =


=== non-polar questions ===
Words in '''Kalo''' tend to function in multiple roles. * elefen.org/vocabulo_fundal.html
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''ma''' - what; which
* '''ma ko''' - who, whom
* '''ma koyo''' - whose, of whom
* '''ma tenpo''' - when
{{col-break}}
* '''ma loka''' - where
* '''ma moto''' - how
* '''ma laka''' - how much, how many
* '''ma sapa''' - why
{{col-end}}
 
=== polar questions ===
 
Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ma''' at the end of the sentence.
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''wa wite le kasa'''
: <small>1S see PST house</small>
: ''I saw the house.''
{{col-break}}
* '''ni wite le kasa ma'''
: <small>2S see PST house Q</small>
: ''Did you see the house?''
{{col-end}}
 
= Lexicon =
 
Words in '''Kalo''' tend to function in multiple roles. The lexicon is arranged to include those roles within each entry. What follows is the working lexicon for [[Kalo]].


{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
Line 163: Line 125:
{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}


== particles ==
* '''kai''' - should; ought to; need to; have to (ZHO [[Wiktionary:該#Definitions|該]])
:: '''ni kai ila''' - <small>2s should go</small> - ''You should leave.''
* '''ke''' - number marker (ZHO [[Wiktionary:個#Definitions|個]])
* '''kisa''' - maybe; perhaps; possibly (SPA [[Wiktionary:quizá|quizá]])
* '''le''' - past tense marker [PST] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:了#Definitions|了]])
:: '''wa toma le''' - <small>1s consume PST</small> - ''I ate.''
* '''ma''' - what; which; question marker [Q] (ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:ما#Pronoun|ما]]/[[wiktionary:嗎#Definitions|嗎]])
* '''ne''' - no; not; negative; neither (ENG [[Wiktionary:nay#English|nay]])
* '''o''' - direct object marker [DO] (JPN [[Wiktionary:を#Particle|を]])
* '''sa''' - future tense marker [FUT] (ARA [[Wiktionary:س#Particle|سَـ]])
:: '''nilo ne wite sa ko''' - <small>2pl NEG see FUT 3sg</small> - ''You all will not see her.''
* '''se''' - reflexive marker [REFL] (SPA [[Wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]])
:: '''ko se lawa le''' - <small>3s REFL wash PST</small> - ''She bathed herself.''
== determiners ==
* '''pu''' - this; these (TUR [[Wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]])
* '''su''' - that; those (TUR [[Wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]])
== pronouns ==
* '''wa''' - I; me [1sg] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:我|我]])
* '''ni''' - you [2sg] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:你|你]])
* '''ko''' - person; individual; adult / he; she [3sg] (ZHO [[Wiktionary:個|個]])
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever; any/something [INDEF] (ARA [[Wiktionary:أي|أي]])
=== possession ===


== a ==
* Possession is shown with the particle '''te''' - ''of; from'', or with the suffix '''-yo''' - ''have; possess''
* Plurality is marked with the suffix '''-lo''' - ''a pile''


{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''kasalo te ko'''
: <small>house-PL of 3sg</small>
: ''His homes''
{{col-break}}
* '''kasa te walo'''
: <small>house of 1sg-PL</small>
: ''Our home''
{{col-break}}
* '''ipin wayo'''
: <small>child 1sg.POSS</small>
: ''my child''
{{col-break}}
* '''pu kana te kolo'''
: <small>this COP of 3pl</small>
: ''this is theirs''
{{col-end}}


* '''amo''' (SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]) - ''v'' - like; love; adore | ''n'' - affection; adoration; love
== conjunctions ==
* '''asi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]) - ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore
* '''awa''' (ARA [[wiktionary:أو#Arabic|أو]]) - ''part'' - either; or; other


* '''asi''' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore (SPA [[Wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]])
* '''awa''' - or; either; other (ARA [[Wiktionary:أو|أو]])
* '''e''' - and; also; too; as well (SPA/ZHO [[Wiktionary:e#Conjunction_30|e]]/[[Wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]])
* '''ita''' - if; whether (ARA [[Wiktionary:إذا|إذا]])
* '''me''' - but; however; although; yet (FRE [[Wiktionary:mais#French|mais]])


== common verbs ==


aku (-ku) n / num hundred; 100; many; much; a lot ひゃく JPN
* '''kan(a)''' - yes; be; exist; live; occur; thus (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:كان#Arabic|كان]]/[[wiktionary:כן#Hebrew|כן]])
ante prep / v before; in front; forward; ahead ante SPA
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause; happen (ENG [[Wiktionary:make#English|make]])
ayo part whichever; whatever; something [INDEF] أي ARA
* '''pana''' - become; come from; derive from (HIN [[Wiktionary:बनना|बनना]])
* '''pote''' - be able; can; possible; potential (SPA [[Wiktionary:poder#Spanish|poder]])
* '''suya(u)'''  - need; require; necessity; a must (ZHO [[wiktionary:需要#Mandarin|需要]])
* '''wan'''  - want; desire; wish (for) (ENG [[wiktionary:want#English|want]])
* '''yo''' - have; possess (ZHO [[Wiktionary:有|有]])


== e ==
=== basic movements ===


* '''e''' (SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Conjunction_24|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Pronunciation_2|和]]) - ''part'' - and; also; too
* arrive; come (back); enter
* depart; leave; exit; go; travel; walk
* fall
* fly
* follow
* jump
* raise; rise; lift
* roll
* run
* sit
* stand; stay
* stop
* swim


== i ==
=== thought ===


* '''ila''' (SPA [[wiktionary:إلى#Etymology_1|إلى]]) - ''prep'' - to; toward; until; near | ''v'' - to move toward; go
* believe
* decide
* dream
* forget
* know (a fact)
* know, be acquainted with
* learn
* make a mistake, err
* remember
* think
* understand, comprehend


== k ==
== quantity ==


* '''kan''' or '''kana''' (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:كان#Arabic|كان]]/[[wiktionary:כן#Hebrew|כן]]) - ''v'' - be; exist; occur | ''n'' - existence | ''part'' - yes; thus
* '''laka''' - count; number; enumerate; numeral; digit; amount; sum (ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]])
* '''lo''' - plural marker [PL] (ZHO [[wiktionary:摞|摞]])  
* '''nupa''' - enough; sufficient; appropriate (ENG [[wiktionary:enough|enough]])


* '''kisa''' (SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]) - ''part'' - perhaps; maybe [also '''ki''' - if; '''kile''' - maybe 'it was']
=== numbers ===


* '''kono''' (SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]) - ''v'' - know; be aware of; understand; recognize | ''n'' - knowledge; awareness
* '''nulu''' - zero; 0; empty; nothing (SPA [[wiktionary:nulo#Spanish|nulo]])
* '''wa''' - one; 1; single; singular; alone (ARA [[wiktionary:واحد#Arabic|واحد]])
* '''li''' - two; 2; double; duo (ZHO [[wiktionary:两|两]])
* '''san''' - three; 3; triple (ZHO [[wiktionary:三|三]])
* '''si'''  - four; 4 (ZHO [[wiktionary:四|四]])
* '''pen''' - five; 5 (ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε|πέντε]])
* '''we'''  - six; 6 (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]])
* '''na'''  - seven; 7 (JPN [[wiktionary:なな|なな]])
* '''pa'''  - eight; 8 (ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]])
* '''nun''' - nine; 9 (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]])
* '''ye'''  - 10; ten (KOR [[wiktionary:열|열]])
* '''aku/-ku''' - hundred; 100; many; much; a lot (JPN [[wiktionary:ひゃく|ひゃく]])
* '''mila''' - thousand; 1000 (SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]])


* '''kun''' (SPA [[wiktionary:con#Spanish|con]]/[[wiktionary:跟#Definitions|跟]]) - ''prep'' - with; by; via | ''v'' - use; employ
==== higher numbers ====


== l ==
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' ('''sanwepen''') - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five


== m ==
== time ==


* '''maka''' (ENG [[wiktionary:make#English|make]]) - ''v'' - make; do; cause; happen | ''n'' - action; reason; event
* '''anyo''' - year; 365 days (SPA [[wiktionary:año#Spanish|año]])
* '''note''' - night; darkness (SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]])
* '''saman''' - time; age; period; passing of events (ARA/HIN [[wiktionary:زمن|زمن]]/[[wiktionary:समय|समय]])
* '''yuma''' - day; daylight; 24 hour period (ARA [[wiktionary:يوم|يوم]])


* '''me''' (FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]) - ''part'' - but; however; although
== location words ==


* '''mente''' (SPA [[wiktionary:mente#Spanish|mente]]) - ''v'' - think; ponder; consider | ''n'' - thought; consideration; mind; mental state
* '''ante''' - before; in front; forward; ahead; facing (SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]])
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; go; walk; travel; leave (ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]/SPA [[wiktionary:ir#Spanish|ir]])
* '''loka''' - place; location; point; spot (SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]])
* '''nai''' - in(side); interior; during; among (JPN [[wiktionary:内#Japanese|内]])
* '''po''' - by; for; through; across; about (SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]/[[wiktionary:para#Spanish|para]])
* '''te''' - of; from; about (SPA [[wiktionary:de#Spanish|de]]/ZHO [[wiktionary:的#Etymology_2|的]])
* '''wela''' - out(side); exterior (SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]])
* '''yu''' - in; at; to; by; than; out of (ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Pronunciation_1|於/于]])


== n ==
== basic adjectives ==


* '''nai''' (JPN [[wiktionary:内#Japanese|内]]) - ''prep'' - inside; within; during; central; middle; center [locative and temporal]
* '''pula''' - bad; spoiled; broken; to break down; wicked; evil (HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]])
:: '''pula maso''' - "worse" >> '''pula ta''' - "worst"
* '''tipa/tupa''' - good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK (ARA/HEB [[wiktionary:طيب#Etymology_1|طيب]]/[[wiktionary:טוב#Etymology_1|טוב]])
:: '''tipa maso''' - "better" >> '''tipa ta''' - "best"


* '''nesi''' (SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]) - ''v'' - need; require | ''n'' - necessity; a must


== o ==


* '''ola''' (SPA [[wiktionary:hola#Spanish|hola]]) - ''part'' - hello; goodbye | ''v'' - greet


== p ==
== people ==


* '''po''' (SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]/[[wiktionary:para#Spanish|para]]) - ''prep'' - for; by; through; because | ''v'' - be about; move across
=== family ===


* '''pote''' (SPA [[wiktionary:poder#Spanish|poder]]) - ''v'' - be able to; can | ''n'' - ability; capability
Because of the ubiquity of a bilabial plosive and nasal being used for "father" and "mother" words respectively, the words used in '''Kalo''' sound, and look very familiar and possibly derived from any one of numerous languages. However, this section will explain how the '''Kalo''' words came to be, and indicate that all other words are gender neutral, unless modified by the gender affixes.


== s ==
* '''apa''' - father; man; husband ('''-pa''' masculine gender)
: Mandarin: [[Wiktionary:爸#Chinese|爸]] /pa˥˩/
: Arabic: [[Wiktionary:أب#Arabic|أب]] /ʔab/
: Spanish: [[Wiktionary:padre#Spanish|padre]] /ˈpadɾe/
: English: [[Wiktionary:papa#English|papa]] /ˈpɑː.pə/
: Hindi: [[Wiktionary:पिता#Hindi|पिता]] /pɪ.t̪ɑː/


* '''simi''' (ENG/SPA [[wiktionary:similar|similar]]) - ''v'' - resemble; similar; like
* '''uma''' - mother; woman; wife ('''-ma''' feminine gender)
: Mandarin: [[Wiktionary:媽#Chinese|媽]] /ma˥/
: Arabic: [[Wiktionary:أم#Etymology_2|أم]] /ʔumm/
: Spanish: [[Wiktionary:madre#Spanish|madre]] /ˈma.ð̞ɾe/
: English: [[Wiktionary:mama#English|mama]] /ˈmɑmə/
: Hindi: [[Wiktionary:माता#Hindi|माता]] /mɑː.t̪ɑː/


== t ==
=== other terms ===


* '''te''' (SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Spanish|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Etymology_2|的]]) - ''prep'' - of; from
* '''ami''' - friend; acquaintance; colleague (SPA [[Wiktionary:amigo#Spanish|amigo/a]])
* '''amo''' - like; love; adore / affection; adoration; love (SPA [[Wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]])
* '''(i)pin''' - child; offspring; kid; daughter; son (ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]])
:: '''pinama''' - "daughter; niece" / '''pinapa''' - "son; nephew"
* '''pama''' - parent; mother; father ('''apa''' + '''uma''')
* '''(s)aki''' - sibling; cousin; shared (grand)parents (ARA [[wiktionary:شقيق|شقيق]]/[[wiktionary:أخ|أخ]])
:: '''akima''' - "sister; female cousin" / '''akipa''' - "brother; male cousin"
* '''sawa''' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate; partner (ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]])
* '''waya''' - adult; mature thing / grow; mature; develop (HIN [[Wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]])


* '''tela''' or '''talo''' (PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/talō|del]]) - ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell | ''n'' - language; discussion; conversation
----


* '''toma''' (SPA [[wiktionary:tomar#Spanish|tomar]]) - ''v'' - eat; drink; ingest | ''n'' - eating; drinking
* adult
* aunt
* baby
* boy
* brother
* child
* cousin
* daughter
* divorce
* enemy
* family
* father
* friend
* girl
* granddaughter
* grandfather
* grandmother
* grandson
* husband
* in-law
* man
* marriage
* mother
* Mr., sir, gentleman, lord
* Mrs., Miss, Ms., ma’am, lady
* name
* nephew
* niece
* person
* sister
* son
* teenager
* uncle
* wife
* woman


== u ==
== food ==


== w ==
* '''pan''' - food; bread; sustenance (SPA [[Wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/ZHO [[Wiktionary:飯#Definitions|飯]])
* '''sosa''' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing (ENG [[Wiktionary:sauce|sauce]])
* '''wino''' - alcohol; beer; wine; drink ~ (SPA [[Wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]])
* '''toma''' - consume; eat; drink (SPA [[Wiktionary:tomar#Spanish|tomar]])
 
= phrases =
 
* wikitravel.org/en/Category:Phrasebooks
:
:
:
* Hello - '''salama''' (''formal'')
:: '''ola''' (''informal'')


* '''wan''' (ENG [[wiktionary:want#English|want]]) - ''v'' - want; desire; wish (for) | ''n'' - desire; want
* How are you? - '''moto ni ma?'''


== y ==
* Please (used to make a polite request) - '''po tipa''' ("for good")


* '''yo''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Chinese|有]]) - ''v'' - have; possess; hold
* Thank you (very much) - '''tanka''' ('''ta''')
* '''yu''' (ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Etymology|於]]) - ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of [strictly locative]


* Yes - '''kan(a)''' (it is)


== zzz ==
* No - '''ne'''


40 before (also as a conjunction)
* Maybe - '''kisa'''
41 after (also as a conjunction)
42 during
43 Question Words
44
45 who
46 what
47 where
48 when
49 why
50 how
51 how much
52 which
53 Adverbs
54
55 a lot
56 a little
57 well
58 badly
59 only
60 also
61 very
62 too (as in “too tall”)
63 too much
64 so (as in “so tall”)
65 so much
66 more (know how to say “more … than …”)
67 less (know how to say “less … than …”)
68 as … as … (e.g. “as tall as”)
69 most
70 least
71 better
72 best
73 worse
74 worst
75 now
76 then
77 here
78 there
79 maybe
80 always
81 usually
82 often
83 sometimes
84 never
85 today
86 yesterday
87 tomorrow
88 soon
89 almost
90 already
91 still
92 even
93 enough
94 Adjectives
95
96 the, a (technically articles)
97 this
98 that
99 good
100 bad
101 all
102 some
103 no
104 any
105 many
106 few
107 most
108 other
109 same
110 different
111 enough
112 one
113 two
114 a few
115 first
116 next
117 last (meaning “past”, e.g. “last Friday”)
118 last (meaning “final”)
119 easy
120 hard
121 early
122 late
123 important
124 interesting
125 fun
126 boring
127 beautiful
128 big
129 small
130 happy
131 sad
132 busy
133 excited
134 tired
135 ready
136 favorite
137 new
138 right (meaning “correct”)
139 wrong
140 true
141 Pronouns
142
143 I / me / my
144
145 I
146 you
147 she
148 he
149 it
150 we
151 you (plural)
152 they
153 Nouns
154
155
156
157 everything
158 something
159 nothing
160 everyone
161 someone
162 no one
163 (name of the language you’re studying)
164 English
165 thing
166 person
167 place
168 time (as in “a long time”)
169 time (as in “I did it 3 times”)
170 friend
171 woman
172 man
173 money
174 country
175 (name of your home country)
176 city
177 language
178 word
179 food
180 house
181 store
182 office
183 company
184 manager
185 coworker
186 job
187 work (as in “I have a lot of work to do”)
188 problem
189 question
190 idea
191 life
192 world
193 day
194 year
195 week
196 month
197 hour
198 mother, father, parent
199 daughter, son, child
200 wife, husband
201 girlfriend, boyfriend
202 More Verbs
203
204 work (as in a person working)
205 work (meaning “to function”, e.g. “the TV works”)
206 see
207 use
208 should
209 believe
210 practice
211 seem
212 come
213 leave
214 return
215 give
216 take
217 bring
218 look for
219 find
220 get (meaning “obtain”)
221 receive
222 buy
223 try
224 start
225 stop (doing something)
226 finish
227 continue
228 wake up
229 get up
230 eat
231 eat breakfast (in several languages, this is a verb)
232 eat lunch
233 eat dinner
234 happen
235 feel
236 create (aka “make”)
237 cause (aka “make”)
238 meet (meeting someone for the first time)
239 meet (meaning “to bump into”)
240 meet (an arranged meeting)
241 ask (a question)
242 ask for (aka “request”)
243 wonder
244 reply
245 mean
246 read
247 write
248 listen
249 hear
250 remember
251 forget
252 choose
253 decide
254 be born
255 die
256 kill
257 live
258 stay
259 change
260 help
261 send
262 study
263 improve
264 hope
265 care
266 Phrases
267
268 hello
269 goodbye
270 thank you
271 you’re welcome
272 excuse me (to get someone’s attention)
273 sorry
274 it’s fine (response to an apology)
275 please
276 yes
277 no
278 okay
279 My name is
280 What’s your name?
281 Nice to meet you.
282 How are you?
283 I’m doing well, how about you?
284 Sorry? / What? (if you didn’t hear something)
285 How do you say ______?
286 What does ______ mean?
287 I don’t understand.
288 Could you repeat that?
289 Could you speak more slowly, please?
290 Well (as in “well, I think…”)
291 Really?
292 I guess that
293 It’s hot. (talking about the weather)
294 It’s cold. (talking about the weather)

Latest revision as of 12:47, 30 December 2021

introduction

  • Kalo (taken from caló) is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession. The goal is to have around 1000 words.



  • Notable features:
Subject-Verb-Object
highly analytical grammar
invariance between word types
only 14 (base) sounds, 9 consonants, and 5 vowels
simple phonotactics, or syllable structure (C)V(N)
only ~1000 core words
easy-to-follow word compounding

phonology

Kalo has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is mostly word final.

alphabetical order

Kalo uses English alphabetical order: a e i k l m n o p s t u w y

consonants

Labial Coronal Dorsal
Nasal m n
Plosive p t k
Fricative s
Approximant w l j (y)

vowels

Front Back
Close i u
Mid e o
Open a

diphthongs

There are two diphthongs [ai̯] ai, and [au̯] au. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.

syllable structure

All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.

syntax

Classical Arabic is primarily VSO, but MSA (Modern Standard Arabic) tends to be SVO, favoring full agreement over partial.
Chinese is classified as an SVO language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb.
Spanish unmarked word order for affirmative declarative sentences is SVO; however, as in other Romance languages, in practice, word order is mostly variable.
English word order is almost exclusively SVO.
Hindi is primarily an SOV language.

Based on the above information about the main source languages for Kalo, it is primarily an SVO (subject-verb-object) language. Modifiers generally follow what they modify, as do prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.

  • wa toma - 1S consume - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o pan toma - DO food consume - The bread is eaten. (OV)



lexicon

Words in Kalo tend to function in multiple roles. * elefen.org/vocabulo_fundal.html

  • ARA - Arabic
  • ELL - Greek
  • ENG - English
  • FRE - French
  • GER - German
  • HEB - Hebrew
  • HIN - Hindi
  • JPN - Japanese
  • KOR - Korean
  • PIE - Proto-Indo-European
  • SPA - Spanish
  • TUR - Turkish
  • ZHO - Mandarin
  • adj - adjective
  • n - noun
  • num - number/numeral
  • part - particle
  • prep - preposition
  • pro - pronoun
  • v - verb


particles

  • kai - should; ought to; need to; have to (ZHO 該)
ni kai ila - 2s should go - You should leave.
  • ke - number marker (ZHO 個)
  • kisa - maybe; perhaps; possibly (SPA quizá)
  • le - past tense marker [PST] (ZHO 了)
wa toma le - 1s consume PST - I ate.
  • ma - what; which; question marker [Q] (ARA/ZHO ما/嗎)
  • ne - no; not; negative; neither (ENG nay)
  • o - direct object marker [DO] (JPN を)
  • sa - future tense marker [FUT] (ARA سَـ)
nilo ne wite sa ko - 2pl NEG see FUT 3sg - You all will not see her.
  • se - reflexive marker [REFL] (SPA se)
ko se lawa le - 3s REFL wash PST - She bathed herself.

determiners

  • pu - this; these (TUR bu)
  • su - that; those (TUR şu)

pronouns

  • wa - I; me [1sg] (ZHO 我)
  • ni - you [2sg] (ZHO 你)
  • ko - person; individual; adult / he; she [3sg] (ZHO 個)
  • ayo - whichever; whatever; any/something [INDEF] (ARA أي)

possession

  • Possession is shown with the particle te - of; from, or with the suffix -yo - have; possess
  • Plurality is marked with the suffix -lo - a pile
  • kasalo te ko
house-PL of 3sg
His homes
  • kasa te walo
house of 1sg-PL
Our home
  • ipin wayo
child 1sg.POSS
my child
  • pu kana te kolo
this COP of 3pl
this is theirs


conjunctions

  • asi - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so; therefore (SPA así)
  • awa - or; either; other (ARA أو)
  • e - and; also; too; as well (SPA/ZHO e/和)
  • ita - if; whether (ARA إذا)
  • me - but; however; although; yet (FRE mais)

common verbs

  • kan(a) - yes; be; exist; live; occur; thus (ARA/HEB كان/כן)
  • maka - do; make; cause; happen (ENG make)
  • pana - become; come from; derive from (HIN बनना)
  • pote - be able; can; possible; potential (SPA poder)
  • suya(u) - need; require; necessity; a must (ZHO 需要)
  • wan - want; desire; wish (for) (ENG want)
  • yo - have; possess (ZHO 有)

basic movements

  • arrive; come (back); enter
  • depart; leave; exit; go; travel; walk
  • fall
  • fly
  • follow
  • jump
  • raise; rise; lift
  • roll
  • run
  • sit
  • stand; stay
  • stop
  • swim

thought

  • believe
  • decide
  • dream
  • forget
  • know (a fact)
  • know, be acquainted with
  • learn
  • make a mistake, err
  • remember
  • think
  • understand, comprehend

quantity

  • laka - count; number; enumerate; numeral; digit; amount; sum (ARA رقم)
  • lo - plural marker [PL] (ZHO 摞)
  • nupa - enough; sufficient; appropriate (ENG enough)

numbers

  • nulu - zero; 0; empty; nothing (SPA nulo)
  • wa - one; 1; single; singular; alone (ARA واحد)
  • li - two; 2; double; duo (ZHO 两)
  • san - three; 3; triple (ZHO 三)
  • si - four; 4 (ZHO 四)
  • pen - five; 5 (ELL πέντε)
  • we - six; 6 (PIE swéḱs)
  • na - seven; 7 (JPN なな)
  • pa - eight; 8 (ZHO 八)
  • nun - nine; 9 (PIE h₁néwn̥)
  • ye - 10; ten (KOR 열)
  • aku/-ku - hundred; 100; many; much; a lot (JPN ひゃく)
  • mila - thousand; 1000 (SPA mil)

higher numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen (sanwepen) - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five

time

  • anyo - year; 365 days (SPA año)
  • note - night; darkness (SPA noche)
  • saman - time; age; period; passing of events (ARA/HIN زمن/समय)
  • yuma - day; daylight; 24 hour period (ARA يوم)

location words

  • ante - before; in front; forward; ahead; facing (SPA ante)
  • ila - be toward; at; go; walk; travel; leave (ARA إلى/SPA ir)
  • loka - place; location; point; spot (SPA local)
  • nai - in(side); interior; during; among (JPN 内)
  • po - by; for; through; across; about (SPA por/para)
  • te - of; from; about (SPA de/ZHO 的)
  • wela - out(side); exterior (SPA fuera)
  • yu - in; at; to; by; than; out of (ZHO 於/于)

basic adjectives

  • pula - bad; spoiled; broken; to break down; wicked; evil (HIN बुरा)
pula maso - "worse" >> pula ta - "worst"
  • tipa/tupa - good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK (ARA/HEB طيب/טוב)
tipa maso - "better" >> tipa ta - "best"



people

family

Because of the ubiquity of a bilabial plosive and nasal being used for "father" and "mother" words respectively, the words used in Kalo sound, and look very familiar and possibly derived from any one of numerous languages. However, this section will explain how the Kalo words came to be, and indicate that all other words are gender neutral, unless modified by the gender affixes.

  • apa - father; man; husband (-pa masculine gender)
Mandarin: 爸 /pa˥˩/
Arabic: أب /ʔab/
Spanish: padre /ˈpadɾe/
English: papa /ˈpɑː.pə/
Hindi: पिता /pɪ.t̪ɑː/
  • uma - mother; woman; wife (-ma feminine gender)
Mandarin: 媽 /ma˥/
Arabic: أم /ʔumm/
Spanish: madre /ˈma.ð̞ɾe/
English: mama /ˈmɑmə/
Hindi: माता /mɑː.t̪ɑː/

other terms

  • ami - friend; acquaintance; colleague (SPA amigo/a)
  • amo - like; love; adore / affection; adoration; love (SPA amor)
  • (i)pin - child; offspring; kid; daughter; son (ARA ابن)
pinama - "daughter; niece" / pinapa - "son; nephew"
  • pama - parent; mother; father (apa + uma)
  • (s)aki - sibling; cousin; shared (grand)parents (ARA شقيق/أخ)
akima - "sister; female cousin" / akipa - "brother; male cousin"
  • sawa - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate; partner (ARA زوج)
  • waya - adult; mature thing / grow; mature; develop (HIN वयस्क)
  • adult
  • aunt
  • baby
  • boy
  • brother
  • child
  • cousin
  • daughter
  • divorce
  • enemy
  • family
  • father
  • friend
  • girl
  • granddaughter
  • grandfather
  • grandmother
  • grandson
  • husband
  • in-law
  • man
  • marriage
  • mother
  • Mr., sir, gentleman, lord
  • Mrs., Miss, Ms., ma’am, lady
  • name
  • nephew
  • niece
  • person
  • sister
  • son
  • teenager
  • uncle
  • wife
  • woman

food

  • pan - food; bread; sustenance (SPA pan/ZHO 飯)
  • sosa - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing (ENG sauce)
  • wino - alcohol; beer; wine; drink ~ (SPA vino)
  • toma - consume; eat; drink (SPA tomar)

phrases

  • wikitravel.org/en/Category:Phrasebooks
  • Hello - salama (formal)
ola (informal)
  • How are you? - moto ni ma?
  • Please (used to make a polite request) - po tipa ("for good")
  • Thank you (very much) - tanka (ta)
  • Yes - kan(a) (it is)
  • No - ne
  • Maybe - kisa
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